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correspondences

images

ad- ag- agh- agro- aik- aim- ais- aiw- ak- akwä al-1 al-2 al-3 albho alu ambhi an- an@- angh- ansu- ant- apo- ar- arg- as- at- äter au- aug- aus- awi- awo- ayer- ayes-	to, near, at	bak- bel- bhä-1 bhä-2 bha-bhä bhad bhag bhäghu bhägo bhardh-ä bhares bhau bhegw bhei bheid bheidh bhel-1 bhel-2 bhel-3 bhelgh- bhendh- bher-1 bher-2 bher@g- bhergh bhergh-2 bhes- bheudh- bheu@- bheug- bhlë- bhleu- bhoso- bhräter- bhreg- bhreu- bhrü-	support strong to shine to speak broad bean good to share out arm beech tree beard barley to strike to run bee to split to trust to shine to blow, to swell to thrive, bloom to swell to bind to carry bright, brown to shine, bright, white to hide, protect high to breathe aware to be to bend to blow to swell naked brother to break to boil eyebrow	dä- dail- daiwer- dakru- de- deik- dek- dekm deks del-1 del-2 dem- dem@- dent- der- derk- deru- deu-1 deu-2 deu@- deuk- dhë- dhegwh- dhëi- dheigh- dher- dhers- dhës- dheu-1 dheu-2 dheub- dheu@- dheugh- dhghem- dhghyes- dhïgw- dhreg- dhreibh- dhreu- dhug@ter- dhwer- dlegh- dnghü- dö- dus- dwo- dyeu-	to divide to divide husb.bro. tear démonst. to show take, accept ten right long to count house to constrain tooth to split to see solid; tree to lack to do long time to lead to set, put burn, warm to suck to form, build hold, support to venture god to flow to die deep to close to produce earth yesterday to stick draw, glide drive, push to fall, flow daughter door s'engager tongue to give bad, evil two to shine

ed- eg eghs egwh- ei- eis- ekwo- el- em- en epi er-1 er-2 er@- ers- es- esu- eu- eu@- eu@-dhr

to eat, bite I out to drink to go passion horse elbow to distribute in near to move ground to row motion to be good to dress to leave udder

ad- To, near, at.

1 a. AT¹; ATONE, TWIT, from Old English æt, near, by, at; b. ADO, from Old Norse at. Both a and b from Germanic *at.

2. AD-, -a; ADJUVANT, AID, AMOUNT, PARAMOUNT, from Latin ad, ad-, to, toward.

3. Celtic *ad-, to, at, in compound *to-ad-ni-sed- (see sed- ).

(Pokorny 1. ad- 3.)

ag- To drive, draw, move. Oldest form *agì-, becoming *ag- in centum languages. Derivatives include agony, ambiguous, demagogue, essay, and squat.

1. ACT, ACTIVE, ACTOR, ACTUAL, ACTUARY, ACTUATE, AGENDUM, AGENT, AGILE, AGITAT; ALLEGE, AMBAGE, AMBIGUOUS, ASSAY, CACHE, COAGULUM, COGENT, ESSAY, EXACT, EXACTA, EXAMINE, EXIGENT, EXIGUOUS, FUMIGATE, FUSTIGATE, INTRANSIGENT, LEVIGATE, LITIGATE, NAVIGATE, OBJURGATE, PRODIGALITY, REDACT, RETROACTIVE, SQUAT, TRANSACT, VARIEGATE, from Latin agere, to do, act, drive, conduct, lead, weigh.

2. -agogue, AGON; ANAGOGE, ANTAGONIZE, CHORAGUS, DEMAGOGUE, EPACT, GLUCAGON, HYPNAGOGIC, MYSTAGOGUE, PEDAGOGUE, PROTAGONIST, STRATAGEM, SYNAGOGUE, from Greek agein, to drive, lead, weigh.

3. Suffixed form *ag-to-. AMBASSADOR, EMBASSAGE, EMBASSY, from Latin ambactus, servant, from Celtic *amb(i)-ag-to-, “one who goes around” (*ambi, around; see ambhi ).

4. Suffixed form *ag-ti-, whence adjective *ag-ty-o-, “weighty.” AXIO; AXIOLOGY, CHRONAXIE, from Greek axios, worth, worthy, of like value, weighing as much.

5. Possibly suffixed form *ag-ro-, driving, pursuing, grabbing. PELLAGRA, PODAGRA, from Greek agrä, a seizing.

6. O-grade suffixed form *og-mo-, furrow, track, metaphorically “incised line.” OGHAM, from Old Irish Ogma (from Celtic *Ogmios), name of a Celtic god and traditional inventor of the ogham alphabet.

(Pokorny agì- 4.) See also derivative agro- .

agh- A day (considered as a span of time). Oldest form *agìh-, becoming *agh- in centum languages. a. DA; DAISY, TODAY, from Old English dæg, day; b. LANDTAG, from Old High German tag, day; c. DAWN, from Old English denominative dagian, to dawn. a–c all from Germanic *dagaz (with initial d- of obscure origin), day.

sanscrit : dina

(Pokorny âgìher- 7.)

agro- Field. Probably a derivative of ag- . Oldest form *agìro-, becoming *agro- in centum languages.

1. ACRE, from Old English æcer, field, acre, from Germanic *akraz.

2. AGRARIA; AGRICULTURE, PEREGRINE, PILGRIM, from Latin ager (genitive agrï), earlier *agros, district, property, field.

3. AGRIA, AGRO; AGROSTOLOGY, ONAGER, STAVESACRE, from Greek agros, field, and agrios, wild. (In Pokorny agì- 4.)

aik- To be master of, possess. Oldest form *@₂eikì-, colored to *@₂aikì-, becoming *aikì- in satem languages and *aik- in centum languages.

1. OUGHT¹, OWE, from Old English ägan, to possess, from Germanic *aigan, to possess.

2. OWN, from Old English ägen, one's own, from Germanic participial form *aiganaz, possessed, owned.

3. FRAUGHT, FREIGHT, from Middle Low German and Middle Dutch vrecht, vracht, “earnings,” hire for a ship, freight, from Germanic prefixed form *fra-aihtiz, absolute possession, property (*fra-, intensive prefix; see per¹ ).

4. Reduplicated zero-grade (perfect) form *@e-@ik-, remade to *@i-@ik- (> *ïk-). GANESH, from Sanskrit ïs.t.e, he rules over.

(Pokorny ëik- 298.)

aim- Copy. Oldest form *@₂eim-, colored to *@₂aim-.

1. Suffixed full-grade form *aim-olo-. EMULATE, EMULOUS, from Latin aemulus, emulous.

2. Zero-grade form *@im-. a. IMITAT; INIMITABLE, from Latin imitäre, to imitate, from suffixed form *im-eto-; b. IMAGE, IMAGO, IMAGINE, from Latin imägö, image. (Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite imma-, ritual substitute.)

ais- To wish, desire. Oldest form *@₂eis-, colored to *@₂ais-. Suffixed form *ais-sk-. ASK, from Old English äscian, äcsian, to ask, seek, from Germanic *aiskön.

(Pokorny 1. ais- 16.)

aiw- Also ayu-. Vital force, life, long life, eternity; also “endowed with the acme of vital force, young.” Oldest forms *@₂eiw-, *@₂eyu-, colored to *@₂aiw-, *@₂ayu-. Derivatives include no¹, ever, medieval, age, and eon.

1 a. NO¹, from Old English ä, ever; b. AUGHT¹, from Old English äwiht, äuht, anything, “ever a creature”; c. EVE; EVERY, NEVER, from Old English aëfre (second element obscure), ever; d. AYE²; NAY, from Old Norse ei, ever. a, c, and d all from extended Germanic form *aiwi; b from Germanic *aiwi + *wihti, “ever a thing, anything” (*wihti-, thing; see wekti- ). 2a. Suffixed form *aiw-o-. COEVAL, LONGEVITY, MEDIEVAL, PRIMEVAL, from Latin aevum, age, eternity; b. further suffixed form *aiwo-tä(ti)-. AG; COETANEOUS, from Latin aetäs (stem aetäti-), age; c. further suffixed form *aiwo-t-erno-. ETERNAL, ETERNE, ETERNIT; SEMPITERNAL, from Latin aeternus, eternal.

3. Suffixed form *aiw-en-. EON, from Greek aiön, age, vital force.

4. Zero-grade form *yu- (earlier *@yu-) in compound *@yu-g^wi@-es-, “having a vigorous life” (*g^wi@-es-, life; see g^wei- ). HYGIENE, from Greek hugiës, healthy.

5. O-grade form *oyu- (earlier *@oyu-). a. UTOPIA, from Greek ou, not, variant of ouk, probably from a pre-Greek phrase *(ne) oyu (k^wid), “(not on your) life” (ne, not, and *k^wid, indefinite pronoun used as emphasizing particle; see ne and k^wo- ); b. AYURVEDA, from Sanskrit äyuh., life, health, from suffixed form *oyu-s-.

(Pokorny aiu_- 17.) See also derivative yeu- .

ak- Sharp. Oldest form *@₂ekì-, colored to *@₂akì-, becoming *akì- in satem languages and *ak- in centum languages. Derivatives include acute, hammer, heaven, eager¹, vinegar, acid, and oxygen.

1. Suffixed form *ak-yä-. a. EDG; SELVAGE, from Old English ecg, sharp side, from Germanic *agjö; b. EGG², from Old Norse eggja, to incite, goad, from Germanic *agjan.

2. Suffixed form *ak-u-. a. EAR², from Old English æhher, ëar, spike, ear of grain, from Germanic *ahuz-; b. ACICULA, ACUITY, ACULEATE, ACUMEN, ACUPUNCTURE, ACUTE, AGLET, AGUE, EGLANTINE, from Latin acus, needle; c. ACEROSE, from Latin acus, chaff.

3. Suffixed form *ak-i-. ACIDANTHERA, from Greek akis, needle.

4. Suffixed form *ak-men-, stone, sharp stone used as a tool, with metathetic variant *ka-men-, with variants: a. *ka-mer-. HAMMER, from Old English hamor, hammer, from Germanic *hamaraz; b. *ke-men- (probable variant). HEAVEN, from Old English heofon, hefn, heaven, from Germanic *hibin-, “the stony vault of heaven,” dissimilated form of *himin-.

5. Suffixed form *ak-onä-, independently created in: a. AWN, from Old Norse ögn, ear of grain, and Old English agen, ear of grain, from Germanic *aganö; and b. PARAGON, from Greek akonë, whetstone.

6. Suffixed lengthened form *äk-ri-. ACERATE, ACRID, ACRIMONY, EAGER¹; CARVACROL, VINEGAR, from Latin äcer, sharp, bitter.

7. Suffixed form *ak-ri-bhwo-. ACERBIC, EXACERBATE, from Latin acerbus, bitter, sharp, tart.

8. Suffixed (stative) form *ak-ë-. ACID, from Latin acëre, to be sharp.

9. Suffixed form *ak-ëto-. ACETABULUM, ACETIC, ACETU; ESTER, from Latin acëtum, vinegar.

10. Suffixed form *ak-mä-. ACME, ACNE, from Greek akmë, point.

11. Suffixed form *ak-ro-. ACRO; ACROBAT, ACROMION, from Greek akros, topmost.

12. O-grade form *ok- (from earlier *@ok-) in suffixed form *ok-ri-. MEDIOCRE, from Latin ocris, rugged mountain.

13. Suffixed o-grade form *ok-su-. AMPHIOXUS, OXALIS, OXYGEN, OXYTONE, OXYURIASIS, PAROXYSM, from Greek oxus, sharp, sour.

(Pokorny 2. akì- 18, 3. kìem- 556.)

akw-ä- Water.

1. AI; ISLAND, from Old English ïg, ïeg, island, from Germanic *aujö, “thing on the water,” from *agwjö.

2. AQUA, AQUARELLE, AQUARIUM, AQUATIC, AQUI-, EWER, GOUACH; AQUAMARINE, AQUATINT, AQUAVIT, AQUEDUCT, SEWER¹, from Latin aqua, water.

(Pokorny aku_ä- 23.)

al-1 Beyond (au delà). Oldest form probably *@₂el-, colored to *@₂al-. Derivatives include alarm, ultimate, else, alien, alibi, and parallel.

1. O-grade form *ol- (earlier *@₂ol-), “beyond.” a. Compound forms *ol-se-, *ol-so- (*so-, pronominal stem; see so- ). ALARM, ALERT, ALFRESCO, ALLIGATOR, EL Niño, HOOPLA, LAGNIAPPE, LANGUE d'oïl, LARIAT, VOILà, from Latin ille (feminine illa, neuter illud), “yonder,” that, from Archaic Latin ollus; b. suffixed forms *ol-s, *ol-tero-. OUTRé, ULTERIOR, ULTIMATE, ULTRA-, UTTERANCE², from Latin uls, *ulter, ulträ, beyond.

2. Suffixed form *al-tero-, “other of two.” a. ALTER, ALTERCATE, ALTERNATE, ALTRUIS; SUBALTERN, from Latin alter, other, other of two; b. ADULTERATE, ADULTERINE, ADULTERY, from Latin adulteräre, to commit adultery with, pollute, probably from the phrase ad alterum, “(approaching) another (unlawfully)” (ad, to; see ad- ); c. variant suffixed form *an-tero-, “other (of two).” OTHER, from Old English öther, from Germanic *antharaz.

3. Suffixed form *al-eno-. ARANYAKA, from Sanskrit aran.a-, foreign.

4. Extended form *alyo-, “other of more than two.” a. ELS; ELDRITCH, from Old English el-, elles, else, otherwise, from Germanic *aljaz (with adverbial suffix); b. ALIAS, ALIE; ALIBI, ALIQUOT, HIDALGO, from Latin alius, other of more than two; c. ALLO; ALLEGORY, ALLELOMORPH, ALLELOPATHY, MORPHALLAXIS, PARALLAX, PARALLEL, TROPHALLAXIS, from Greek allos, other.

(Pokorny 1. al- 24, 2. an 37.)

al-2 To grow, nourish. Derivatives include old, haughty, altitude, enhance, alumnus, coalesce, and prolific.

I. Suffixed (participial) form *al-to-, “grown.”

1 a. ALDERMAN, OLD, from Old English eald, ald, old; b. ELDER¹, from Old English (comparative) ieldra, eldra, older, elder; c. ELDEST, from Old English (superlative) ieldesta, eldesta, eldest; d. Germanic compound *wer-ald- (see wï-ro- ). a–d all from Germanic *alda-.

2. ALT, ALTO, HAUGHTY, HAWSE; ALTIMETER, ALTIPLANO, ALTITUDE, ALTOCUMULUS, ALTOSTRATUS, ENHANCE, EXALT, HAUTBOY, from Latin altus, high (“grown tall”), deep.

II. Suffixed form *al-mo-. ALMA mater, from Latin almus, nurturing, nourishing.

III. Suffixed form *al-o-. ADOLESCENT, ADULT, ALIBLE, ALIMENT, ALIMONY, ALTRICIAL, ALUMNU; COALESCE, from Latin alere, to nourish, and alumnus, fosterling, step-child, originally a participle of alere (“being nourished,” < *al-o-mno-).

IV. Suffixed (causative) form *ol-eye-. ABOLISH, from Latin abolëre, to retard the growth of, abolish (ab-, from; see apo- ).

V. Compound form *pro-al- (pro-, forth; see per¹ ). PROLETARIAN, PROLIFEROUS, PROLIFIC, from Latin prölës, offspring.

VI. Extended form *aldh-. ALTHEA, from Greek althein, althainein, to get well.

(Pokorny 2. al- 26.)

al-3 All. Germanic and Celtic root.

1. Suffixed form *al-na-. a. AL; ALBEIT, ALREADY, ALSO, ALTHOUGH, ALWAYS, AS, from Old English all, eall, eal-, al-, all; b. ALTHING, from Old Norse allr, all. Both a and b from Germanic *allaz.

2. Germanic *ala-, all, in compound *Ala-manniz (see man-¹ ). (In Pokorny 1. al- 24.)

albho- White. Derivatives include elf, oaf, and albino.

1. Possibly Germanic *albiz, *albaz, elf, if meaning “white ghostly apparition.” a. ELF, from Old English ælf, elf; b. OAF, from Old Norse alfr, elf; c. OBERON, from Old French Auberon, from a source akin to Old High German Alberich.

2. ELFIN, from Old English -elfen, elf, possibly from Germanic *albinjö.

3. ABELE, ALB, ALBEDO, ALBESCENT, ALBINO, ALBITE, ALBUM, ALBUMEN, AUBADE, AUBUR; DAUB, from Latin albus, white.

(Pokorny albho- 30.)

alu- In words related to sorcery, magic, possession, and intoxication. Suffixed form *alu-t-. ALE, from Old English ealu, from Germanic *aluth-.

(Pokorny alu- 33.)

ambhi Also m,bhi. Around. Probably derived from *ant-bhi, “from both sides” (see ant- ).

1. Reduced form *bhi. a. BY¹; ABAFT, BUT, from Old English bi, bï, be, by; b. BE-, from Old English be-, on all sides, be-, also intensive prefix; c. BELEAGUER, from Middle Dutch bie, by; d. BIVOUAC, from Old High German bi, by, at. a–d all from Germanic *bi, *bi- (intensive prefix). 2a. EMBER Day, from Old English ymbe, around; b. OMBUDSMAN, from Old Norse um(b), about, around; c. UMLAUT, from Old High German umbi, around. a–c all from Germanic *umbi. 3a. AMBI-, from Latin ambi-, around, about; b. ALLEY¹, ALLEY-oop, AMBULANCE, AMBULATE, ANDANTE, FUNAMBULIST, PERAMBULATE, PREAMBLE, from Latin amb-, around, about, in ambuläre, to go about, walk (*aläre, to go).

4. AMPHI-, from Greek amphi, around, about.

5. Celtic *ambi, around, in compound *amb(i)-ag-to- (see ag- ).

(Pokorny ambhi 34.)

an- On.

I. Extended form *ana.

1 a. O; ACKNOWLEDGE, ALIKE, from Old English an, on, a, on, and prefixed on-; b. ALOFT, AMISS, from Old Norse ä, in, on; c. ANLAGE, ANSCHLUSS, from Old High German ana-, on; d. ONSLAUGHT, from Middle Dutch aen, on. a–d all from Germanic *ana, *anö.

2. ANA², ANA-, from Greek ana, on, up, at the rate of.

II. Variant form *no. NAPRAPATHY, from Old Church Slavonic na, in, on, to, from Slavic *na.

(Pokorny 4. an 39.)

an@- To breathe. Oldest form *@₂en@₁-, colored to *@₂an@₁-. Suffixed form *an@-mo-.
a. ANIMA, ANIMADVERT, ANIMAL, ANIMATE, ANIMATO, ANIMISM, ANIMOSITY, ANIMU; EQUANIMITY, LONGANIMITY, MAGNANIMOUS, PUSILLANIMOUS, UNANIMOUS, from Latin animus, reason, mind, spirit, and anima, soul, spirit, life, breath;
b. ANEMO-, ANEMONE, from Greek anemos, wind.

(Pokorny 3. an(@)- 38.)

angh- Tight, painfully constricted, painful. Oldest form *angìh-, becoming *angh- in centum languages. Derivatives include anger, hangnail, and quinsy.

1. AGNAIL, HANGNAIL, from Old English ang-nægl, “painful spike (in the flesh),” corn, excrescence (nægl, spike; see nogh- ), from Germanic *ang-, compressed, hard, painful.

2. Suffixed form *angh-os-. ANGER, from Old Norse angr, sorrow, grief, from Germanic *angaz.

3. Suffixed form *angh-os-ti-. ANGST¹, from Old High German angust, anxiety, from Germanic *angusti-.

4. ANXIOUS, from Latin angere, to strangle, torment.

5. Suffixed form *angh-os-to-. ANGUISH, from Latin angustus, narrow.

6. QUINSY, from Greek ankhein, to squeeze, embrace.

7. ANGINA, from Greek ankhonë, a strangling.

(Pokorny angìh- 42.)

ansu- Spirit, demon. Oldest form *@₂e/onsu-, colored to *@₂a/onsu-.

1. AESI; ASGARD, from Old Norse äss, god, from Germanic *ansu-.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *n,su-ro-. AHURA Mazda, ORMAZD, from Avestan ahura-, spirit, lord.

(Pokorny ansu- 48.)

ant- Front, forehead. Oldest form *@₂ent-, colored to *@₂ant-. Derivatives include along, end, advance, and antique.

I. Inflected form (locative singular) *anti, “against,” with derivatives meaning in front of, before; also end.

1. UN-²; ALONG, from Old English and-, indicating opposition, from Germanic *andi- and *anda-.

2. END, from Old English ende, end, from Germanic *andja-.

3. ANCIENT¹, ANTE, ANTE-, ANTERIO; ADVANCE, ADVANTAGE, VANGUARD, from Latin ante, before, in front of, against.

4. ANTI; ENANTIOMER, ENANTIOMORPH, from Greek anti, against, and enantios, opposite.

5. Compound form *anti-@k^wo-, “appearing before, having prior aspect” (*@k^w-, appearance; see ok^w- ). ANTIC, ANTIQUE, from Latin antïquus, former, antique.

6. Reduced form *n,ti-. a. UNTIL, from Old Norse und, until, unto; b. ELOPE, from Middle Dutch ont-, away from. Both a and b from Germanic *und-.

7. Variant form *anto-. VEDANTA, from Sanskrit antah., end.

II. Probable inflected form (ablative plural) *ant-bhi, “from both sides,” whence *ambhi, around. See ambhi-.

(Pokorny ant-s 48.)

apo- Also ap-. Off, away. Derivatives include off, ebb, awkward, puny, and compote.

1 a. OF, OFF, OFFAL, from Old English of, æf, off; b. EBB, from Old English ebba, low tide; c. ABLAUT, from Old High German aba, off, away from; d. AF; ABAFT, from Old English æftan, behind, from Germanic *aftan-. a–d all from Germanic *af.

2. AB-¹, from Latin ab, ab-, away from.

3. APO-, from Greek apo, away from, from.

4. Suffixed (comparative) form *ap(o)-tero-. AFTER, from Old English æfter, after, behind, from Germanic *aftar-.

5. Suffixed form *ap-t-is-. EFTSOONS, from Old English eft, again, from Germanic *aftiz.

6. Suffixed form *apu-ko-. AWKWARD, from Old Norse öfugr, turned backward, from Germanic *afug-.

7. Possible variant root form *po(s), on, in. a. POGROM, from Russian po, at, by, next to; b. POST-, POSTERIO; POSTMORTEM, PREPOSTEROUS, PUISNE, PUNY, from Latin post, behind, back, afterward; c. APPOSITE, APPOSITION, APROPOS, COMPONENT, COMPOSE, COMPOSITE, COMPOSITION, COMPOST, COMPOTE, COMPOUND, CONTRAPPOSTO, DEPONE, DEPOSIT, DISPOSE, EXPONENT, EXPOSE, EXPOUND, IMPOSE, IMPOST¹, IMPOST², INTERPOSE, JUXTAPOSE, OPPOSE, POSITION, POSITIVE, POST², POST³, POSTICHE, POSTURE, PREPOSITION, PROPOSE, PROVOST, PUNT³, REPOSIT, SUPPOSE, TRANSPOSE, from Latin pönere, to put, place, from *po-s(i)nere (sinere, to leave, let; of obscure origin).

(Pokorny apo- 53.)

ar- Also ar@-. To fit together. Oldest form *@₂er@₁-, colored to *@₂ar@₁-, with variant *@₂re@₁-, contracted to *rë-. Derivatives include army, harmony, inert, aristocracy, adorn, hatred, rite, arithmetic, and rhyme.

I. Basic form *ar@-.

1. Suffixed form *ar(@)-mo-.

a. ARM¹, from Old English earm, arm, from Germanic *armaz;
b. AMBRY, ARM², ARMADA, ARMADILLO, ARMATURE, ARMOIRE,
ARM, ALARM, DISARM, GENDARME, from Latin arma, tools, arms
c. ARMILLARY sphere, from Latin armus, upper arm.

2. Suffixed form *ar(@)-smo-. HARMONY, from Greek harmos, joint, shoulder.

3. Suffixed form *ar(@)-ti-. a. ART¹, ARTISAN, ARTIS; INERT, INERTIA, from Latin ars (stem art-), art, skill, craft; b. further suffixed form *ar(@)-ti-o-. ARTIODACTYL, from Greek artios, fitting, even.

4. Suffixed form *ar(@)-tu-. ARTICLE, from Latin artus, joint.

5. Suffixed form *ar(@)-to-. COARCTATE, from Latin artus, tight.

6. Suffixed form *ar(@)-dhro-. ARTHRO; ANARTHROUS, DIARTHROSIS, DYSARTHRIA, ENARTHROSIS, SYNARTHROSIS, from Greek arthron, joint.

7. Suffixed (superlative) form *ar(@)-isto-. ARISTOCRACY, from Greek aristos, best.

II. Possibly suffixed lengthened o-grade form (or separate root) *ör@-dh-.

1. ORDAIN, ORDER, ORDINAL, ORDINANCE, ORDINARY, ORDINATE, ORD; COORDINATION, INORDINATE, SUBORDINATE, from Latin ördö, order (originally a row of threads in a loom).

2. EXORDIUM, PRIMORDIAL, from Latin ördïrï, to begin to weave.

3. ORNAMENT, ORNAT; ADORN, SUBORN, from Latin örnäre, to adorn.

III. Variant *rë- (< *re@-).

1. RATE¹, RATIO, RATION, REASO; ARRAIGN, from Latin rërï, to consider, confirm, ratify.

2. Suffixed form *rë-dh-. a. i READ, RED; DREAD, from Old English raëdan, to advise; ii HATRED, KINDRED, from Old English raëden, -raëden, condition. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *rëdan; b. i RATHSKELLER, from Old High German rät, counsel; ii RIDDLE², from Old English raëdels(e), opinion, riddle. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *rëdaz.

3. Zero-grade form *r@-. Germanic *radam, number, in dialectal North and West Germanic compound *hund(a)-rada- (see dekm, ).

IV. Variant root form *@₂re@₁i-, with zero-grades *@₂r@₁i- and (metathesized) *@₂ri@₁-, the latter contracted to *rï-.

1. Suffixed metathesized zero-grade form *rï-tu-. RITE, from Latin rïtus, rite, custom, usage.

2. Suffixed unmetathesized zero-grade form *@r@i-dhmo-. ARITHMETIC, LOGARITHM, from Greek arithmos, number, amount.

3. RHYME, from a Germanic source akin to Old High German rïm, number, series.

(Pokorny 1. ar- 55.)

arg- To shine; white; the shining or white metal, silver. Oldest form *@₂(e)rgì-, colored to *@₂(a)rgì-, becoming *argì- in satem languages and *arg- in centum languages.

1. Suffixed form *arg-ent-. ARGENT, ARGENTINE, from Latin argentum, silver.

2. Suffixed form *arg-i-l(l)-. ARGIL, from Greek argillos, white clay.

3. Suffixed form *arg-u-ro-. LITHARGE, PYRARGYRITE, from Greek arguros, silver.

4. Suffixed form *arg-i-n-. ARGININE, from Greek arginoeis, brilliant, bright-shining.

5. Suffixed form *arg-u-, brilliant, clear. ARGUE, from Latin denominative arguere, to make clear, demonstrate (< *argu-yo-).

6. Suffixed zero-grade form *@r,g-ro-, becoming *arg-ro-. AGRIMONY, possibly from Greek argos, white (< *argros).

Avestique : aurusha, couleur or (ar, scintiller)

(Pokorny ar(e)-gì- 64.)

as- To burn, glow. Oldest form *@₂es-, colored to *@₂as-. Derivatives include arson and azalea.

1. Extended form *asg-. ASH¹, from Old English æsce, asce, ash, from Germanic *askön-.

2. Suffixed form *äs-ä-. ARA, from Latin ära, altar, hearth.

3. Suffixed (stative) form *äs-ë-. a. ARID, from Latin äridus, dry, parched, from ärëre, to be dry; b. ARDENT, ARDOR, ARSON, from Latin ärdëre, to burn, be on fire, from äridus, parched.

4. Extended form *asd-. a. ZAMIA, from Greek azein, to dry; b. AZALEA, from Greek azaleos, dry.

(Pokorny âs- 68.)

at- To go; with Germanic and Latin derivatives meaning a year (conceived as “the period gone through, the revolving year”). Suffixed form *at-no-. ANNALS, ANNUAL, ANNUIT; ANNIVERSARY, BIENNIUM, DECENNIUM, MILLENNIUM, PERENNIAL, QUADRENNIUM, QUINDECENNIAL, QUINQUENNIUM, SEPTENNIAL, SEXENNIAL, SUPERANNUATED, TRIENNIUM, VICENNIAL, from Latin annus, year.

(Pokorny at- 69.)

äter- Fire.

1. Suffixed zero-grade form *ätr-o-. ATRABILIOUS, from Latin äter (feminine ätra), black (< “blackened by fire”).

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *ätr-yo-. ATRIUM, from Latin ätrium, forecourt, hall, atrium (perhaps originally the place where the smoke from the hearth escaped through a hole in the roof).

3. Compound shortened zero-grade form *atro-@k^w-, “black-looking” (*@k^w-, “looking”; see ok^w- ). ATROCIOUS, from Latin âtröx, frightful.

4. Basic form *äter. ZIRCON, from Old Persian *ätar, fire (stem äç- attested in month name äçiyädiya, “(month) of fire-worship”), from Indo-Iranian *ätar.

5. Possibly, but obscurely related to this root is Sanskrit atharvä, atharvan-, priest (-van-, possessive suffix): ATHARVA-Veda.

(Pokorny ät(e)r- 69.)

au- To perceive. Compound forms *au-dh-, *awis-dh-, “to place perception” (*dh-, to place; see dhë- ).

1. Suffixed form *awisdh-yo- or *audh-yo-. AUDIBLE, AUDIENCE, AUDILE, AUDIO-, AUDIT, AUDITION, AUDITOR, AUDITORIUM, AUDITORY, OYE; OBEY, SUBAUDITION, from Latin audïre, to hear.

2. AESTHETI; ANESTHESIA, from Greek aisthanesthai, to feel.

(Pokorny 8. au_- 78.)

aug- To increase. Oldest form *@₂eug-, colored to *@₂aug-. Variant *@₂weg- becoming *(a)weg-. Derivatives include nickname, auction, and auxiliary.

1. EKE¹, from Old English ëacan, ëcan, to increase; b. NICKNAME, from Old English ëaca, an addition. Both a and b from Germanic *aukan.

2. Variant (metathesized) form *weg- (from *@weg-), extended to *wegs- (o-grade *wogs-). a. WAX²; WOODWAXEN, from Old English weaxan, to grow, from Germanic *wahsan; b. WAIST, from Old English *wæst, growth, hence perhaps waist, size, from Germanic *wahs-tu-.

3. Form *aug-ë-. AUCTION, AUGEND, AUGMENT, AUTHOR, AUTHORIZE, from Latin augëre, to increase.

4. AUGU; INAUGURATE, from Latin augur, diviner (< “he who obtains favorable presage” < “divine favor, increase”).

5. AUGUST, from Latin augustus, majestic, august.

6. Suffixed form *aug-s-. a. AUXILIARY, from Latin auxilium, aid, support, assistance; b. AUXIN, AUXESIS, from Greek auxein, auxanein, to increase.

(Pokorny au_eg- 84.)

aus- To shine. Derivatives include east, Easter, and aurora.

1 a. EAST, from Old English ëast, east (< “the direction of the sunrise”); b. OSTMARK, from Old High German östan, east. Both a and b from Germanic *aust-. 2a. EASTERN, from Old English ëasterne, eastern; b. OSTROGOTH, from Late Latin ostro-, eastern. Both a and b from Germanic *austra-.

3. EASTER, from Old English ëastre, Easter, from Germanic *auströn-, dawn.

4. Possibly in Latin auster, the south wind, formally identical to the Germanic forms in 2 and 3, but the semantics are unclear: AUSTRO-¹.

5. Probably suffixed form *ausös-, dawn, also Indo-European goddess of the dawn. a. AURORA, from Latin auröra, dawn; b. EO-, EO; EOSIN, from Greek ëös, dawn.

(Pokorny au_es- 86.)

awi- Bird. Oldest form *@₂ewi-, colored to *@₂awi-. Derivatives include aviation, bustard, ostrich, cockney, oval, and caviar.

I.

1. AVIAN, AVIARY, AVIATIO; AVICULTURE, AVIFAUNA, BUSTARD, OCARINA, OSPREY, OSTRICH, from Latin avis, bird.

2. Compound *awi-spek-, “observer of birds” (*spek-, to see; see spek- ). AUSPICE, from Latin auspex, augur.

II. Possible derivatives are the Indo-European words for egg, *öwyo-, *öyyo-.

1 a. COCKNEY, from Old English aëg, egg; b. EGG¹, from Old Norse egg, egg. Both a and b from Germanic *ajja(m).

2. OVAL, OVARY, OVATE, OVI-, OVOLO, OVULE, OVUM, from Latin övum, egg.

3. OO-, from Greek öion, egg.

4. CAVIAR, from a source akin to Middle Persian khäyak, egg, from Old Iranian *ävyaka-, diminutive of *avya-.

(Pokorny au_ei- 86.)

awo- An adult male relative other than one's father.

1. ATAVISM, from Latin avus, grandfather.

2. AVUNCULAR, UNCLE, from Latin avunculus, maternal uncle.

3. AYAH, from Latin avia, grandmother.

(Pokorny au_o-s 89.)

ayer- Day, morning.

1 a. EARLY, ERE, OR², from Old English aër, before; b. OR², from Old Norse är, before. Both a and b from Germanic *airiz.

2. ERST, from Old English aërest, earliest, from Germanic (superlative) *airistaz.

sanscrit : ahan

(Pokorny âi_er- 12.)

ayes- A metal, copper or bronze. AENEOUS, ERA, from Latin aes, bronze, money.

(Pokorny ai_os- 15.)

bak- Staff used for support.

1. BACILLUS, BAGUETTE, BAIL⁴, BAILEY); BACULIFORM, DEBACLE, IMBECILE, possibly from Latin baculum, rod, walking stick.

2. BACTERIU; CORYNEBACTERIUM, from Greek baktron, staff.

(Pokorny bak- 93.)

bel- Strong.

1. Suffixed o-grade form *bol-iyo-. BOLSHEVIK, from Russian bol'shoì, large.

2. Prefixed form *dë-bel-i-, “without strength” (dë-, privative prefix; see de- ). DEBILITATE, DEBILITY, from Latin dëbilis, weak.

(Pokorny 2. bel- 96.)

bhä-1 To shine. Oldest form *bhe@₂-, colored to *bha@₂-, contracted to *bhä-. Derivatives include beacon, berry, banner, fantasy, and phase.

1. Suffixed zero-grade form *bh@-w-. a. BEACON, from Old English bëac(e)n, beacon; b. BECKON, from Old English bëcnan, bïecnan, to make a sign, beckon, from Germanic denominative *bauknjan; c. BUOY, from Old French boue, buoy. a–c all from Germanic *baukna-, beacon, signal.

2. Perhaps Germanic *bazja-, berry (< “bright-colored fruit”). a. BERR; MULBERRY, from Old English berie, berige, berry, and Old High German beri, berry; b. FRAMBESIA, from Old French framboise, raspberry, alteration of Frankish *bräm-besi, “bramble berry.” 3a. BANDOLEER, from Spanish banda, sash; b. BANDERILLA, BANDEROLE, BANNER, BANNERET¹, BANNERET², from Late Latin bandum, banner, standard. Both a and b from Germanic *bandwa-, “identifying sign,” banner, standard, sash, also “company united under a (particular) banner.”

4. Suffixed zero-grade form *bh@-w-es-. PHOS-, PHOT, PHOTO; PHOSPHORUS, from Greek phös (stem phöt-), light.

5. Suffixed zero-grade form *bh@-w-. PHAëthon, from Greek phaeithein, to shine, burn.

6. Extended and suffixed zero-grade form *bh@-n-yo-. FANTASY, PANT, -phane, PHANTASM, PHANTOM, PHASE, PHENO-, PHENOMENO; DIAPHANOUS, EMPHASIS, EPIPHANY, HIEROPHANT, PHANEROGAM, PHANEROZOIC, PHANTASMAGORIA, PHOSPHENE, SYCOPHANT, THEOPHANY, TIFFANY, from Greek phainein, “to bring to light,” cause to appear, show, and phainesthai (passive), “to be brought to light,” appear, with zero-grade noun phasis (*bh@-ti-), an appearance.

(Pokorny 1. bhä- 104.)

bhä-2 To speak. Oldest form *bhe@₂-, colored to *bha@₂-, contracted to *bhä-. Derivatives include fate, infant, prophet, abandon, banish, symphony, confess, and blame.

1. FABLE, FABLIAU, FABULOUS, FADO, FAIRY, FANDANGO, FATE, FAY²; AFFABLE, FANTOCCINI, INEFFABLE, INFANT, INFANTRY, PREFACE, from Latin färï, to speak.

2. -phasi; APOPHASIS, PROPHET, from Greek phanai, to speak. 3a. BAN¹, from Old English bannan, to summon, proclaim, and Old Norse banna, to prohibit, curse; b. BANAL, BANN; ABANDON, from Old French ban, feudal jurisdiction, summons to military service, proclamation, Old French bandon, power, and Old English gebann, proclamation; c. BANISH, from Old French banir, to banish; d. CONTRABAND, from Late Latin bannus, bannum, proclamation; e. BANDIT, from Italian bandire, to muster, band together (< “to have been summoned”). a–e all from Germanic suffixed form *ban-wan, *bannan, to speak publicly (used of particular kinds of proclamation in feudal or prefeudal custom; “to proclaim under penalty, summon to the levy, declare outlaw”).

4. Suffixed form *bhä-ni-. a. BOON¹, from Old Norse bön, prayer, request; b. BEE¹, perhaps from Old English bën, prayer, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse bön, prayer. Both a and b from Germanic *böni-.

5. Suffixed form *bhä-ma. a. FAME, FAMOU; DEFAME, INFAMOUS, from Latin fäma, talk, reputation, fame; b. EUPHEMISM, POLYPHEMUS, from Greek phëmë, saying, speech.

6. Suffixed o-grade form *bhö-nä-. PHONE², -phone, PHONEME, PHONETIC, PHONO-, -phon; ANTHEM, ANTIPHON, APHONIA, CACOPHONOUS, EUPHONY, SYMPHONY, from Greek phönë, voice, sound, and (denominative) phönein, to speak.

7. Suffixed zero-grade form *bh@-to-. CONFESS, PROFESS, from Latin fatërï, to acknowledge, admit.

8. BLAME, BLASPHEME, from Greek blasphëmos, blasphemous, perhaps from *ml,s-bhä-mo-, “speaking evil” (blas-, evil; see mel-³ ).

(Pokorny 2. bhä- 105.)

bha-bhä- Broad bean.

1. FAVA bean, FAVELA, from Latin faba, broad bean.

2. Variant form *bha-un-. BEAN, from Old English bëan, broad bean, bean of any kind, from Germanic *baunö.

3. Possible suffixed form *bha-ko-. PHACOEMULSIFICATION, from Greek phakos, lentil.

(Pokorny bhabhä 106.)

bhad- Good.

1. BETTER, from Old English betera, better, from Germanic (comparative) *batizö.

2. BEST, from Old English bet(e)st, best, from Germanic (superlative) *batistaz.

3. BOOT², from Old English böt, remedy, aid, from Germanic noun *bötö.

4. BATTEN¹, ultimately from Old Norse batna, to improve, from Germanic verb *batnan, to become better.

(Pokorny bhâd- 106.)

bhag- To share out, apportion, also to get a share.

1. -phage, -phagia, PHAGO-, -phagou; ESOPHAGUS, from Greek phagein, to eat (< “to have a share of food”).

2. PORGY, from Greek phagros, whetstone (“eater, that eats metal”), also a name for the sea bream, from Greek suffixed form *phag-ro-.

3. NEBBISH, from a Slavic source akin to Czech neboh, poor, unfortunate, from Common Slavic *ne-bogù, poor (“un-endowed”).

4. PAGOD; BHAGAVAD-Gita, from Sanskrit bhagah., good fortune.

5. BHAKTI, from Sanskrit bhajati, he apportions.

6. Extended form *bhags-. BAKSHEESH, BUCKSHEE, from Persian bakhshïdan, to give, from Avestan bakhsh-.

(Pokorny 1. bhag- 107.)

bhäghu- Arm. Oldest form *bhägìhu-, becoming *bhäghu- in centum languages. BOUGH, from Old English bög, böh, bough, from Germanic *böguz.

sanscrit : bahu

(Pokorny bhäghú-s (misprint for bhägìhú-s) 108.)

bhägo- Beech tree.

1 a. BOOK, from Old English böc, written document, composition; b. BUCKWHEAT, from Middle Dutch boek, beech; c. BOKMål, from Norwegian bok, book. a–c all from Germanic *bökö, beech, also “beech staff for carving runes on” (an early Germanic writing device).

2. BEECH, from Old English bëce, beech, from Germanic *bökjön-.

(Pokorny bhägó-s 107.)

bhardh-ä- Beard.

1. BEARD, from Old English beard, beard, from Germanic *bardaz.

2. HALBERD, from Old High German barta, beard, ax, from Germanic *bardö, beard, also hatchet, broadax.

3. BARB¹, BARBEL¹, BARBELLATE, BARBER, BARBETTE, BARBICEL, BARBUL; REBARBATIVE, from Latin barba, beard.

(Pokorny bhardhä 110.)

bhares- Also bhars-. Barley.

1 a. BARN, from Old English bere, barley, from Germanic *bariz-; b. BARLEY, from Old English bærlic, barley-like, barley, from Germanic *barz-.

2. FARINA, FARINACEOUS, FARRAGINOUS, FARRAGO, from Latin far (stem farr-), spelt, grain.

(Pokorny bhares- 111.)

bhau- To strike. Oldest form *bhe@₂u-, colored to *bha@₂u-, contracted to *bhau-. Derivatives include beat, buttock, halibut, button, and refute.

1. BEAT, from Old English bëatan, to beat, from Germanic *bautan.

2. BEETLE³; BATTLEDORE, from Old English bÿtl, hammer, mallet, from Germanic *bautilaz, hammer.

3. BASTE³, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse beysta, to beat, denominative from Germanic *baut-sti-.

4. BUTTOCK, from Old English diminutive buttuc, end, strip of land, from Germanic *bütaz. 5a. HALIBUT, from Middle Dutch butte, flatfish; b. TURBOT, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Swedish but, flatfish. Both a and b from Germanic *butt-, name for a flatfish.

6. BOUTON, BUTT¹, BUTTON, BUTTRES; ABUT, REBUT, SACKBUT, from Old French bo(u)ter, to strike, push, from Germanic *buttan.

7. Variant zero-grade form *bhü- (< *bhu@-, metathesized from *bh@u-). Suffixed form *bhü-t-ä-. a. CONFUTE, from Latin cönfütäre, to check, suppress, restrain (com-, intensive prefix; see kom ); b. REFUTE, from Latin refütäre, to drive back, rebut (re-, back; see re-).

8. Possibly reduced suffixed form *bhu-tu- (*bh@u-). FOOTL; CLAFOUTI, from Latin futuere, to have intercourse with (a woman).

(Pokorny 1. bhâu- 112.)

bhegw- To run.

1. BECK², from Old Norse bekkr, a stream, from Germanic *bakjaz, a stream.

2. -phobe, -phobia, from Greek phobos, panic, flight, fear, from phebesthai, to flee in terror.

(Pokorny bhegu_- 116.)

bhei- A bee. BEE¹, from Old English bëo, a bee, from Germanic suffixed form *bïön-.

(Pokorny bhei- 116.)

bheid- To split; with Germanic derivatives referring to biting (hence also to eating and to hunting) and woodworking. Derivatives include bite, bitter, and fission.

1 a. BEETLE¹, BITE, from Old English bïtan, to bite; b. TSIMMES, from Old High German bïzan, bizzan, to bite. Both a and b from Germanic *bïtan.

2. Zero-grade form *bhid-. a. BIT², from Old English bite, a bite, sting, from Germanic *bitiz; b. (i) BIT¹, from Old English bita, a piece bitten off, morsel; (ii) bitt, from a Germanic source akin to Old Norse biti, bit, crossbeam. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *bitön-; c. suffixed form *bhid-ro-. BITTER, from Old English bit(t)er, “biting,” sharp, bitter.

3. O-grade form *bhoid-. a. BAIT¹, from Old Norse beita (verb), to hunt with dogs, and beita (noun), pasture, food; b. ABET, from Old French beter, to harass with dogs. Both a and b from Germanic *baitjan.

4. BATEAU, BOA; BOATSWAIN, from Old English bät, boat, from Germanic *bait-, a boat (< “dugout canoe” or “split planking”).

5. Nasalized zero-grade form *bhi-n-d-. -fid, FISSI-, FISSILE, FISSION, FISSURE, VENT², from Latin findere, to split.

(Pokorny bheid- 116.)

bheidh- To trust, confide, persuade. Derivatives include bide, fiancé, and infidel.

1. Probably Germanic *bïdan, to await (< “to await trustingly, expect, trust”). ABIDE, ABODE, from Old English bïdan, to wait, stay.

2. FIANCé, FIDUCIAL, FIDUCIAR; AFFIANCE, AFFIANT, AFFIDAVIT, CONFIDANT, CONFIDE, CONFIDENT, DEFIANCE, DEFY, DIFFIDENT, from Latin fïdere, to trust, confide, and fïdus, faithful.

3. Suffixed o-grade form *bhoidh-es-. FEDERAL, FEDERAT; CONFEDERATE, from Latin foedus (stem foeder-), treaty, league.

4. Zero-grade form *bhidh-. FAITH, FAY³, FEALTY, FIDEISM, FIDELIT; INFIDEL, PERFIDY, from Latin fidës, faith, trust.

(Pokorny 1. bheidh- 117.)

bhel-1 To shine, flash, burn; shining white and various bright colors. Derivatives include blue, bleach, blind, blond, blanket, black, flagrant, and flame.

I. Suffixed full-grade form *bhel-o-.

1 a. BELUGA, from Russian belyì, white; b. BELTANE, from Scottish Gaelic bealltainn, from Old Irish beltaine, “fire of Bel” (ten, tene, fire; see tep-), from Bel, name of a pagan Irish deity akin to the Gaulish divine name Belenos, from Celtic *bel-o-.

2. PHALAROPE, from Greek phalaros, having a white spot.

II. Extended root *bhle@₁-, contracted to *bhlë-.

1. Suffixed form *bhlë-wo-. BLUE, from Old French bleu, blue, from Germanic *blëwaz, blue.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhl,@-wo-. FLAVESCENT, FLAVO; FLAVIN, FLAVONE, FLAVOPROTEIN, from Latin flävus, golden or reddish yellow.

III. Various extended Germanic forms.

1. BLEACH, from Old English blaëcan, to bleach, from Germanic *blaikjan, to make white.

2. BLEAK¹, from Old Norse bleikr, shining, white, from Germanic *blaikaz, shining, white.

3. BLITZKRIEG, from Old High German blëcchazzen, to flash, lighten, from Germanic *blikkatjan. 4a. BLAZE¹, from Old English blæse, torch, bright fire; b. BLESBOK, from Middle Dutch bles, white spot; c. BLEMISH, from Old French ble(s)mir, to make pale. a–c all from Germanic *blas-, shining, white. 5a. BLIN; BLINDFOLD, PURBLIND, from Old English blind, blind; b. BLENDE, from Old High German blentan, to blind, deceive; c. BLEND, from Old Norse blanda, to mix; d. BLOND, from Old French blond, blond. a–d all from Germanic *blendaz, clouded, and *bland-, *bland-ja-, to mix, mingle (< “make cloudy”). 6a. BLENCH¹, from Old English blencan, to deceive; b. BLANCH, BLANK, BLANKE; BLANCMANGE, from Old French blanc, white. Both a and b from Germanic *blenk-, *blank-, to shine, dazzle, blind.

7. BLUSH, from Old English blyscan, to glow red, from Germanic *blisk-, to shine, burn.

IV. Extended root *bhleg-, to shine, flash, burn.

1. O-grade form bhlog-. BLACK, from Old English blæc, black, from Germanic *blakaz, burned.

2. Zero-grade form *bhl,g-. a. FULGENT, FULGURAT; EFFULGENT, FOUDROYANT, REFULGENT, from Latin fulgëre, to flash, shine, and fulgur, lightning; b. FULMINATE, from Latin fulmen (< *fulg-men), lightning, thunderbolt. 3a. FLAGRAN; CONFLAGRANT, CONFLAGRATION, DEFLAGRATE, from Latin flagräre, to blaze; b. CHAMISE, FLAMBé, FLAMBEAU, FLAMBOYANT, FLAME, FLAMINGO, FLAMMABL; INFLAME, from Latin flamma (< *flag-ma), a flame.

4. PHLEGM, PHLEGMATIC, PHLEGETHON, from Greek phlegein, to burn.

5. O-grade form *bhlog-. PHLOGISTON, PHLO; PHLOGOPITE, from Greek phlox, a flame, also a wallflower.

(Pokorny 1. bhel- 118, bheleg- 124, bhleu-(k)- 159.)

bhel-2 To blow, swell; with derivatives referring to various round objects and to the notion of tumescent masculinity. Derivatives include boulevard, boulder, phallus, balloon, ballot, and fool.

1. Zero-grade form bhl,-. a. BOWL¹, from Old English bolla, pot, bowl; b. BOLE, from Old Norse bolr, tree trunk; c. BULK, from Old Norse bulki, cargo (< “rolled-up load”); d. ROCAMBOLE, from Old High German bolla, ball; e. BOULEVARD, BULWARK, from Middle High German bole, beam, plank; f. BOLL, from Middle Dutch bolle, round object; g. BILTONG, from Middle Dutch bille, buttock; h. BOULDER, from a Scandinavian source akin to Swedish bullersten, “rounded stone,” boulder, from *buller-, “round object.” a–h all from Germanic *bul-.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhl,-n-. a. BULL¹, from Old Norse boli, bull, from Germanic *bullön-; b. BULLOCK, from Old English bulluc, bull, from Germanic *bulluka-; c. PHALLU; ITHYPHALLIC, from Greek phallos, phallus; d. possibly Latin fullö, a fuller: FULL².

3. O-grade form *bhol-. a. BOLLIX, from Old English beallucas, testicles; b. BALL¹, from Old English *beall, ball; c. BILBERRY, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Danish bolle, round roll; d. BALLOON, BALLOT, BALLOTTEMENT, from Italian dialectal balla, ball; e. PALL-mall, from Italian palla, ball; f. BALE¹, from Old French bale, rolled-up bundle. a–f all from Germanic *ball-.

4. Possibly suffixed o-grade form *bhol-to-. a. BOLD, from Old English bald, beald, bold; b. BAWD, from Old Saxon bald, bold; c. BALDER, from Old Norse ballr, baldr, brave. a–c from Germanic *balthaz, bold.

5. Suffixed o-grade form *bhol-n-. FILS², FOLLICLE, FOLLY, FOOL, from Latin follis, bellows, inflated ball.

6. Possibly Greek phal(l)aina, whale: BALEEN.

7. Conceivably from this root (but more likely unrelated) is Greek phellos, cork, cork oak: PHELLE; PHELLODERM, PHELLOGEN.

(Pokorny 3. bhel- 120.) The following derivatives of this root are entered separately: bhel-³ , bhelgh- , bhleu- .

bhel-3 To thrive, bloom. Possibly from bhel-² . Derivatives include foliage, blossom, flora, bleed, bless, and blade.

I. Suffixed o-grade form *bhol-yo-, leaf.

1. FOIL², FOLIAGE, FOLIO, FOLIU; CINQUEFOIL, DEFOLIATE, EXFOLIATE, FEUILLETON, MILFOIL, PERFOLIATE, PORTFOLIO, TREFOIL, from Latin folium, leaf.

2. -phyll, PHYLLO-, -phyllou; CHERVIL, GILLYFLOWER, PODOPHYLLIN, from Greek phullon, leaf.

II. Extended form *bhlë- (< *bhle@-).

1. O-grade form *bhlö-. a. Suffixed form *bhlö-w-. BLOW³, from Old English blöwan, to flower, from Germanic *blö-w-; b. i BLOOM¹, from Old Norse blöm, blömi, flower, blossom; ii BLOOM², from Old English blöma, a hammered ingot of iron (semantic development obscure). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic suffixed form *blö-mön-; c. BLOSSOM, from Old English blöstm, blöstma, flower, blossom, from Germanic suffixed form *blö-s-; d. FERRET², FLORA, FLORA, FLORAL, FLORET, FLORIATED, FLORID, FLORIN, FLORIST, -florous, FLOUR, FLOURISH, FLOWE; CAULIFLOWER, DEFLOWER, EFFLORESCE, ENFLEURAGE, FLORIGEN, MILLEFLEUR, from Latin flös (stem flör-), flower, from Italic suffixed form *flö-s-; e. suffixed form *bhlö-to-, possibly in the meaning “swell, gush, spurt” in Germanic *blödam, blood. i BLOOD, from Old English blöd, blood; ii BLEED, from Old English *blëdan, to bleed, from Germanic denominative *blödjan; iii BLESS, from Old English bloedsian, blëtsian, to consecrate, from Germanic *blödisön, to treat or hallow with blood.

2. EMBLEMENTS, from Medieval Latin blädum, bladium, produce of the land, grain, from Germanic suffixed form *blë-da-.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhl@-to-. BLADE, from Old English blæd, leaf, blade, from Germanic *bladaz.

(Pokorny 4. bhel- 122.)

bhelgh- To swell. Extension of bhel-² . Oldest form *bhelgìh-, becoming *bhelgh- in centum languages.

1. O-grade form *bholgh-. BELLOWS, BELLY, from Old English bel(i)g, bælig, bag, bellows, from Germanic *balgiz.

2. Zero-grade form *bhl,gh-. BILLOW, from Old Norse bylgja, a wave, from Germanic *bulgjan.

3. Zero-grade form *bhl,gh-. BOLSTER, from Old English bolster, cushion, from Germanic *bulgstraz.

4. O-grade form *bholgh-. BLAGGING, BUDGET, BULGE, from Latin bulga, leather sack, from Celtic *bolg-.

(Pokorny bhelgìh- 125.)

bhendh- To bind. Derivatives include bind, bandanna, and bundle.

1 a. BIN; WOODBINE, from Old English bindan, to bind; b. BINDLESTIFF, from Old High German binten, to bind. Both a and b from Germanic *bindan.

2. BANDANNA, from Sanskrit bandhati, he ties.

3. O-grade form *bhondh-. a. BEND²; RIBBON, from Old English bend, band, and Old French bende, band; b. BEND¹, from Old English bendan, to bend; c. BAND¹, BOND, from Old Norse band, band, fetter; d. GUM band, from Old High German band, band; e. BAND¹, from Old French bande, bond, tie, link. a–e all from Germanic *band-.

4. Suffixed form *bhond-o-. BUND¹; CUMMERBUND, from Old Iranian banda-, bond, fetter.

5. Zero-grade form *bhn,dh-. a. BUND², from Middle High German bunt, league; b. BUNDLE, from Middle Dutch bondel, sheaf of papers, bundle. Both a and b from Germanic *bund-.

(Pokorny bhendh- 127.)

bher-1 To carry; also to bear children. Derivatives include birth, fertile, suffer, furtive, and metaphor.

1 a. i BEAR¹, from Old English beran, to carry; ii FORBEAR¹, from Old English forberan, to bear, endure (for-, for-; see per¹ ). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *beran; b. BIER, from Old English bër, baër, bier, and Old French biere bier, both from Germanic *bërö; c. BORE³, from Old Norse bära, wave, billow, from Germanic *bër-. 2a. BAIRN, from Old English bearn, child, from Germanic *barnam; b. BARROW¹, from Old English bearwe, basket, wheelbarrow, from Germanic *barwön-. 3a. BURLY, from Old English *borlic, excellent, exalted (< “borne up”), from Germanic *bur-; b. BURDEN¹, from Old English byrthen, burden, from Germanic *burthinja-; c. BIRTH, from a source akin to Old Norse burdhr, birth, from Germanic *burthiz; d. BIRR¹, from Old Norse byrr, favorable wind, perhaps from Germanic *burja-.

4. Compound root *bhrenk-, to bring (< *bher- + *enk-, to reach; see nek-² ). BRING, from Old English bringan, to bring, from Germanic *brengan.

5. -fer, FERTIL; AFFERENT, CIRCUMFERENCE, CONFER, DEFER¹, DEFER², DIFFER, EFFERENT, INFER, OFFER, PREFER, PROFFER, REFER, SUFFER, TRANSFER, VOCIFERATE, from Latin ferre, to carry.

6. Prefixed and suffixed zero-grade form *pro-bhr-o-, “something brought before one” (*pro-, before; see per¹ ). OPPROBRIUM, from Latin probrum, a reproach.

7. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *bhr,-tu- in Latin words having to do with “chance” (? < “a bringing, that which is brought”). a. FORTUITOUS, from Latin fortuïtus, happening by chance; b. FORTUNA, FORTUNE, from Latin fortüna, chance, good luck, fortune, and Fortüna, goddess of good fortune.

8. Probably lengthened o-grade form *bhör-. FERRET¹, FURTIVE, FURUNCL; FURUNCULOSIS, from Latin für, thief.

9. FERETORY, -phore, -phoresis, -phorou; AMPHORA, ANAPHORA, DIAPHORESIS, EUPHORIA, METAPHOR, PERIPHERY, PHEROMONE, TELPHER, TOCOPHEROL, from Greek pherein, to carry, with o-grade noun phoros, a carrying.

10. PARAPHERNALIA, from Greek phernë, dowry (“something brought by a bride”).

11. SAMBAL, from Sanskrit bharati, he carries, brings.

(Pokorny 1. bher- 128.)

bher-2 Bright, brown.

1. Suffixed variant form *bhrü-no-. a. BROWN, from Old English brün, brown; b. BRUIN, from Middle Dutch bruun; c. BRUNET, BURNET, BURNISH, from Old French brun, shining, brown. a–c all from Germanic *brünaz.

2. Reduplicated form *bhibhru-, *bhebhru-, “the brown animal,” beaver. BEAVER¹, from Old English be(o)for, beaver, from Germanic *bebruz.

3. BEAR², from Old English bera, bear, from Germanic *berö, “the brown animal,” bear.

4. BERSERKER, from Old Norse björn, bear, from Germanic *bernuz.

(Pokorny 5. bher- 136.)

bher@g- To shine; bright, white. Oldest form *bher@gì-, becoming *bher@g- in centum languages.

1. BRIGHT, from Old English beorht, bright, from Germanic *berhtaz, bright.

2. “The white tree,” the birch (also the ash). a. BIRCH, BIRK, from Old English birc(e), birch, from Germanic *birkjön-; b. probably suffixed zero-grade form *bhrag-s-. FRAXINELLA, from Latin fraxinus, ash tree.

(Pokorny bher@gì- 139.)

bhergh-1 To hide, protect. Oldest form *bhergìh-, becoming *bhergh- in centum languages.

1 a. Germanic compound *h(w)als-berg- (see k^wel-¹ ); b. Germanic compound *skër-berg- (see sker-¹ ). Both a and b from Germanic *bergan, to protect.

2. Zero-grade form *bhr,gh-. a. BURY, from Old English byrgan, to bury, from Germanic *burgjan; b. BURIAL, from Old English byrgels, burial, from Germanic derivative *burgisli-. 3a. BORROW, from Old English borgian, to borrow, from Germanic *borgën, to pledge, lend, borrow; b. BARGAIN, from Old French bargaignier, to haggle, from Germanic derivative *borganjan.

(Pokorny bhergìh- 145.)

bhergh-2 High; with derivatives referring to hills and hill-forts. Oldest form *bhergìh-, becoming *bhergh- in centum languages. Derivatives include iceberg, bourgeois, burglar, force, and fortify.

1 a. BARROW², from Old English beorg, hill; b. ICEBERG, from Middle Dutch bergh, mountain; c. INSELBERG, from Old High German berg, mountain; d. Germanic compound *harja-bergaz (see koro- ). a–d all from Germanic *bergaz, hill, mountain.

2. BELFRY, from Old French berfroi, tower, from Germanic compound *berg-frij-, “high place of safety,” tower (*frij-, peace, safety; see prï- ).

3. Zero-grade form *bhr,gh-. a. BOROUGH, BURG, from Old English burg, burh, byrig, (fortified) town; b. BURGOMASTER, from Middle Dutch burch, town; c. BOURG, BOURGEOIS, BURGESS, BURGLA; FAUBOURG, from Late Latin burgus, fortified place, and Old French burg, borough; d. BURGHER, from Old High German burgäri, townsman, from Germanic compound *burg-warön-, “city protector” (*warön-, protector; see wer-⁴ ). a–d all from Germanic *burgs, hill-fort.

4. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *bhr,gh-to-. FORCE, FORT, FORTALICE, FORTE¹, FORTE², FORTIS, FORTISSIMO, FORTITUDE, FORTRES; COMFORT, DEFORCE, EFFORT, ENFORCE, FORTIFY, PIANOFORTE, REINFORCE, from Latin fortis, strong (but this is also possibly from dher- ).

(Pokorny bheregìh- 140.)

bhes- To breathe. Probably imitative. Zero-grade form *bhs-. PSYCHE¹, PSYCHIC, PSYCHO; METEMPSYCHOSIS, from Greek psükhë, spirit, soul, from psükhein (< *bhs-ü-kh-), to breathe.

(Pokorny 2. bhes- 146.)

bheudh- To be aware (être au courant), to make aware. Derivatives include bid, forbid, and Buddha².

1 a. BID, from Old English bëodan, to proclaim; b. FORBID, from Old English forbëodan, to forbid; c. VERBOTEN, from Old High German farbiotan, to forbid. a–c all from Germanic *(for)beudan (*for, before; see per¹ ).

2. BODE¹, from Old English bodian, to announce, from boda, messenger, from Germanic *budön-.

3. BEADLE, from Old English bydel, herald, messenger, and Old High German butil, herald, both from Germanic *budilaz, herald.

4. OMBUDSMAN, from Old Norse bodh, command, from Germanic *budam.

5. BUDDHA²; BODHISATTVA, BO tree, from Sanskrit bodhati, he awakes, is enlightened, becomes aware, and bodhih., perfect knowledge.

(Pokorny bheudh- 150.)

bheu@- Also bheu-. To be, exist, grow. Derivatives include be, husband, imp, physics, future, neighbor, and beam.

I. Extended forms *bhwiy(o)-, *bhwï-.

1. B; FOREBEAR, from Old English bëon, to be, from Germanic *biju, I am, will be.

2. FIAT, from Latin fierï, to become.

3. Possibly suffixed form *bhwï-lyo-, seen by some as the source of Latin fïlius, son, but this is more likely from dhë(i)- .

II. Lengthened o-grade form *bhöw-. a. BONDAGE, BOUND⁴; BUSTLE¹, HUSBAND, from Old Norse büa, to live, prepare, and büask, to make oneself ready (-sk, reflexive suffix; see s(w)e- ); b. BAUHAUS, from Old High German büan, to dwell; c. BOOTH, from Middle English bothe, market stall, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Danish böth, dwelling, stall. a–c from Germanic *böwan.

III. Zero-grade form *bhu-.

1 a. BUILD, from Old English byldan, to build, from bold, dwelling, house, from Germanic *buthla-; b. BOODLE, from Middle Dutch bödel, riches, property, from alternate Germanic form *böthla.

2. PHYSIC, PHYSICS, PHYSIO-, PHYSIQUE, -phyte, PHYTO-, PHYTO; APOPHYSIS, DIAPHYSIS, DIPHYODONT, EPIPHYSIS, EUPHUISM, HYPOPHYSIS, IMP, MONOPHYSITE, NEOPHYTE, PERIPHYTON, SYMPHYSIS, TRACHEOPHYTE, from Greek phuein, to bring forth, make grow, phutos, phuton, a plant, and phusis, growth, nature.

3. Suffixed form *bhu-tä-. a. EISTEDDFOD, from Welsh bod, to be; b. BOTHY, from Old Irish both, a hut.

4. Suffixed form *bhu-tu-. FUTURE, from Latin futürus, “that is to be,” future.

IV. Zero-grade form *bhü- (< *bhu@-).

1 a. BOWER¹, from Old English bür, “dwelling space,” bower, room; b. NEIGHBOR, from Old English gebür, dweller (ge-, collective prefix; see kom ); c. BOER, BOOR, from Middle Dutch gheboer, ghebuer, peasant. a–c all from Germanic *büram, dweller, especially farmer.

2. BYRE, from Old English bÿre, stall, hut, from Germanic *bürjam, dwelling.

3. BYLAW, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse bÿr, settlement, from Germanic *büwi-.

4. Suffixed form *bhü-lo-. PHYLE, PHYLETIC, PHYLU; PHYLOGENY, from Greek phülon, tribe, class, race, and phülë, tribe, clan.

V. Zero-grade reduced suffixal form *-bhw-, in Latin compounds.

1. Latin dubius, doubtful, and dubitäre, to doubt, from *du-bhw-io- (see dwo- ).

2. Latin probus, upright, from *pro-bhw-o-, “growing well or straightforward” (see per¹ ).

3. Latin superbus, superior, proud, from *super-bhw-o-, “being above” (see uper ).

VI. Possibly Germanic *baumaz (and *bagmaz), tree (? < “growing thing”). a. BEAM, from Old English bëam, tree, beam; b. BOOM², from Middle Dutch boom, tree; c. BUMPKIN¹, BUMPKIN², from Flemish boom, tree.

(Pokorny bheu- 146.)

bheug- To bend; with derivatives referring to bent, pliable, or curved objects. Derivatives include bagel, buxom, and bog.

I. Variant form *bheugh- in Germanic *beug-.

1 a. BEE², from Old English bëag, a ring; b. BAGEL, from Old High German boug, a ring. Both a and b from Germanic *baugaz. 2a. BOW³; AKIMBO, from Old English boga, a bow, arch; b. Germanic compound *elino-bugön- (see el- ); c. BOW¹, from a source akin to Middle Low German boog, bow of a boat; d. BOWLINE, BOWSPRIT, from Middle Low German böch, bow of a boat. a–d all from Germanic *bugön-.

3. BOW², BUXOM, from Old English bügan, to bend, from Germanic bügan.

4. BAIL³, from Middle English beil, a handle, perhaps from Old English *bëgel or from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Swedish *böghil, both from Germanic *baugil-.

5. BIGHT, from Old English byht, a bend, angle, from Germanic *buhtiz.

II. BOG, from Scottish and Irish Gaelic bog, soft, from Celtic *buggo-, “flexible.”

(Pokorny 3. bheug- 152.)

bhlë- To blow. Contracted from *bhle@₁-, or possibly lengthened grade *bhlë@₂- from alternative root *bhle@₂-. Possibly identical to bhel-³ II *bhlë- above. Derivatives include blaze, flatus, and flavor.

1. BLOW¹, from Old English bläwan, to blow, from Germanic suffixed form *blë-w-. 2a. BLADDER, from Old English blaëdre, blister, bladder; b. BLATHER, from Old Norse bladhra (noun), bladder, and bladhra (verb), to prattle. Both a and b from Germanic suffixed form *blëdram, “something blown up.” 3a. BLAST, from Old English blaëst, a blowing, blast; b. ISINGLASS, from Middle Dutch blas(e), a bladder; c. BLASé, BLAZE³, from Middle Dutch bläsen, to blow up, swell. a–c all from Germanic extended form *blës-.

4. Zero-grade form *bhl,@- (> *bhlä-). FLABELLUM, FLAGEOLET, FLATULENT, FLATUS, FLAVO; AFFLATUS, CONFLATE, DEFLATE, INFLATE, INSUFFLATE, SOUFFLé, from Latin fläre, to blow. (In Pokorny 3. bhel- 120.)

bhleu- To swell, well up, overflow. Extension of bhel-² .

1. Possibly Germanic *blaut-. BLOAT, from Old Norse blautr, soft, wet.

2. Extended form *bhleug^w-. FLUCTUATE, FLUENT, FLUID, FLUME, FLUOR, FLUORO-, FLUSH², FLUVIAL, FLU; AFFLUENT, CONFLUENT, EFFLUENT, EFFLUVIUM, EFFLUX, FLUORIDE, FLUVIOMARINE, INFLUENCE, INFLUENZA, INFLUX, MELLIFLUOUS, REFLUX, SOLIFLUCTION, SUPERFLUOUS, from Latin fluere, to flow, and -fluus, flowing.

3. Zero-grade form *bhlu-. PHLYCTENA, from Greek phlüein, phlüzein, to boil over.

4. Possibly Greek phloos, phloios, tree bark (< “swelling with growth”): PHLOEM.

(Pokorny bhleu- 158.)

bhoso- Naked. a. BARE¹, from Old English bær, bare; b. BALLAST, from Old Swedish and Old Danish bar, bare. Both a and b from Germanic *bazaz.

(Pokorny bhoso-s 163.)

bhräter- Brother, male agnate.

1 a. BROTHER, from Old English bröthor, brother; b. BULLY¹, from Middle Dutch broeder, brother. Both a and b from Germanic *bröthar-.

2. FRA, FRATERNAL, FRATERNITY, FRATERNIZE, FRIA; CONFRERE, FRATRICIDE, from Latin fräter, brother.

3. PHRATRY, from Greek phrätër, fellow member of a clan.

4. PAL, from Sanskrit bhrätä, bhrätar-, brother.

(Pokorny bhräter- 163.)

bhreg- To break. Derivatives include breach, fraction, frail¹, infringe, and suffrage.

1 a. BREAK, from Old English brecan, to break; b. BREACH, from Old English brëc, a breaking; c. BRASH², BRECCIA, from Italian breccia, breccia, rubble, breach in a wall, from Old High German *brehha, from brehhan, to break; d. BRAY², from Old French breier, to break; e. BRIOCHE, from Old French brier, dialectal variant of broyer, to knead. a–e all from Germanic *brekan.

2. BRACKEN, BRAKE⁴, from Middle English brake(n), bracken, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse *brakni, undergrowth; b. BRAKE⁵, from Middle Low German brake, thicket. Both a and b from Germanic *brak-, bushes (< “that which impedes motion”).

3. BRAKE², from Middle Low German brake, flax brake, from Germanic *bräk-, crushing instruments.

4. Nasalized zero-grade form *bhr,-n-g-. FRACTAL, FRACTED, FRACTION, FRACTIOUS, FRACTURE, FRAGILE, FRAGMENT, FRAIL¹, FRANGIBL; ANFRACTUOUS, CHAMFER, DEFRAY, DIFFRACTION, INFRACT, INFRANGIBLE, INFRINGE, IRREFRANGIBLE, OSSIFRAGE, REFRACT, REFRAIN², REFRINGENT, SASSAFRAS, SAXIFRAGE, SEPTIFRAGAL, from Latin frangere, to break. 5a. SUFFRAGAN, SUFFRAGE, from Latin suffrägium, the right to vote, from suffrägärï, to vote for (? < “to use a broken piece of tile as a ballot”); b. IRREFRAGABLE, from Latin refrägärï, to vote against.

(Pokorny 1. bhregì- 165 (but gì not on good evidence).)

bhreu- Also bhreu@-, bhre@u-. To boil, bubble, effervesce, burn; with derivatives referring to cooking and brewing. Oldest form *bhreu@₁-. Derivatives include brew, bread, broth, brood, breed, ferment, and fervent.

I.

1. BREW, from Old English brëowan, to brew, from Germanic *breuwan, to brew.

2. BREAD, from Old English brëad, piece of food, bread, from Germanic *braudam, (cooked) food, (leavened) bread. 3a. BLAFF, BROTH, from Old English broth, broth; b. BREWIS, BROIL²; EMBROIL, IMBROGLIO, from Vulgar Latin *brodum, broth. Both a and b from Germanic *brudam, broth.

II. Variant form *bhrë- (from *bhre@-).

1 a. BROOD, from Old English bröd, offspring, brood; b. BREED, from Old English brëdan, to beget or cherish offspring, breed, from Germanic denominative *brödjan, to rear young. Both a and b from Germanic derivative *bröd-ö, “a warming,” hatching, rearing of young. 2a. BRATWURST, SAUERBRATEN, from Old High German brät, bräto, roast meat; b. BRAWN, from Old French braon, meat. Both a and b from Germanic derivative *brëd-ön-, roast flesh. Both 1 and 2 from Germanic *brëdan, to warm.

III. Variant form *bhres-. a. BRAISE, BRAZE², BRAZIER², BREEZE², BRESAOLA, from Old French brese, burning coal, ember; b. BRACIOLA, from Italian dialectal bras’a, burning coal. Both a and b from Germanic *bres-.

IV. Reduced form *bher-, especially in derivatives referring to fermentation.

1 a. Suffixed form *bher-men-, yeast. BARM, BARMY, from Old English beorma, yeast, from Germanic *bermön-; b. further suffixed form *bhermen-to-. FERMENT, from Latin fermentum, yeast.

2. Extended form *bherw-. FERVENT, FERVID, FERVO; DEFERVESCENCE, EFFERVESCE, from Latin fervëre, to be boiling or fermenting.

V. As a very archaic word for a spring.

1. Suffixed zero-grade form *bhru-n(e)n-. BOURN¹, BURN², from Old English burn, burna, spring, stream, from Germanic *brunnön-.

2. Suffixed form *bhrëw-r,. PHREATIC, from Greek phrear, spring.

(Pokorny bh(e)reu- 143, 2. bher- 132.)

bhrü- Eyebrow. Contracted from *bhru@-.

1. BROW, from Old English brü-, eyebrow, eyelid, eyelash, from Germanic *brüs.

2. Possibly in the sense of a beam of wood, and perhaps a log bridge. BRIDGE¹, from Old English brycg(e), bridge, from Germanic *brugjö (with cognates in Celtic and Slavic).

(Pokorny 1. bhrü- 172, 2. bhrü- 173.)

dä- To divide. Oldest form *de@₂-, colored to *da@₂-, contracted to *dä-. Derivatives include democracy, epidemic, demon, and time.

I. Suffixed form *dä-mo-, perhaps “division of society.” DEME, DEMOS, DEMOTI; DEMAGOGUE, DEMIURGE, DEMOCRACY, DEMOGRAPHY, ENDEMIC, EPIDEMIC, PANDEMIC, from Greek dëmos, people, land.

II. Variant *dai-, from extended form *da@i-, with zero-grade *dï- (< *di@-, metathesized from *d@i-).

1. Root form *dai-. GEODESY, from Greek daiesthai, to divide.

2. Suffixed form *dai-mon-, divider, provider. DAIMON, DEMON, from Greek daimön, divinity.

3. Suffixed variant form *dï-ti-. a. TIDE¹; EVENTIDE, from Old English tïd, time, season; b. TIDE², from Old English denominative tïdan, to happen (< “to occur in time”); c. TIDING, from Old Norse tïdhr, occurring; d. YAHRZEIT, ZEITGEIST, from Old High German zït, time. a–d all from Germanic *tïdiz, division of time.

4. Suffixed variant form *dï-mon-. TIME, from Old English tïma, time, period, from Germanic *tïmön-.

(Pokorny dä : d@- 175.)

dail- To divide. Northern Indo-European root extended from *da(@)i- (see dä- ).

1. DEAL¹, from Old English daëlan, to share, from Germanic *dailjan. 2a. DOLE¹, from Old English däl, portion, lot; b. FILLER², from Old High German teil, part. Both a and b from Germanic *dailaz.

3. ORDEAL, from Old English ordäl, trial by ordeal, from Germanic prefixed form *uz-dailjam, “a portioning out,” judgment (*uz-, out; see ud- ).

4. FIRKIN, from Middle Dutch deel, part, from Germanic *dailiz. (In Pokorny dä : d@- 175.)

daiwer- Husband's brother. LEVIRATE, from Latin lëvir, husband's brother.

(Pokorny däiu_ër 179.)

dakru- Tear. Oldest form *dakìru-, becoming *dakru- in centum languages.

1 a. TEAR², from Old English tëar, tehher, tear; b. TRAIN oil, from Middle Dutch trane, tear, drop. Both a and b from Germanic *tahr-, *tagr-.

2. Suffixed form *dakru-mä-. LACHRYMAL, from Latin lacrima (Archaic Latin dacruma), tear.

(Pokorny dakìru- 179.)

de- Demonstrative stem, base of prepositions and adverbs.

1. Form *dö (possibly instrumental). a. i TO, TOO, from Old English tö, to; ii TSIMMES, from Old High German zuo, ze, to; iii TATTOO¹, from Middle Dutch toe, to, shut. (i)–(iii) all from Germanic *tö; b. Italic *dö in compound *k^wäm-dö (see k^wo- ).

2. Form *dë (possibly instrumental), perhaps source of forms meaning “from, out of.” a. DE-, from Latin dë, dë-, from; b. DETERIORATE, from Latin dëterior, worse, from suffixed form *dë-tero-; c. compound *dë-bel-i- (see bel- ); d. Celtic *dï, from, in compound *eks-dï-sedo- (see sed- ).

(Pokorny de- 181.)

deik- To show, pronounce solemnly; also in derivatives referring to the directing of words or objects. Oldest form *deikì-, becoming *deik- in centum languages. Derivatives include teach, toe, addict, preach, judge, revenge, and disk.

I. Variant *deig-.

1. O-grade form *doig-. a. TEACH, from Old English taëcan, to show, instruct, from Germanic *taikjan, to show; b. i TOKEN, from Old English täcen, täcn, sign, mark; ii BETOKEN, from Old English täcnian, to signify; iii TETCHY, from Gothic taikns, sign; iv TACHISME, from Old French tache, teche, mark, stain. (i)–(iv) all from Germanic *taiknam.

2. Zero-grade form *dig-. DIGIT, from Latin digitus, finger (< “pointer,” “indicator”).

II. Basic form *deik-.

1. Possibly o-grade form *doik-. TOE, from Old English tä, tahe, toe, from Germanic *taihwö.

2. Basic form *deik-. DICTATE, DICTION, DICTUM, DITTO, DITT; ADDICT, BENEDICTION, CONDITION, CONTRADICT, EDICT, FATIDIC, HERB bennet, INDICT, INDICTION, INDITE, INTERDICT, JURIDICAL, JURISDICTION, MALEDICT, MALISON, PREDICT, VALEDICTION, VERDICT, VERIDICAL, VOIR dire, from Latin dïcere, to say, tell.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *dik-ä-. ABDICATE, DEDICATE, PREACH, PREDICAMENT, PREDICATE, from Latin dicäre, to proclaim.

4. Agential suffix *-dik-. a. INDEX, INDICATE, from Latin index, indicator, forefinger (in-, toward; see en ); b. JUDGE, JUDICIA; PREJUDICE, from Latin iüdex (< *yewes-dik-), judge, “one who shows or pronounces the law” (iüs, law; see yewes- ); c. VENDETTA, VINDICAT; AVENGE, REVENGE, from Latin vindex (first element obscure), surety, claimant, avenger.

5. DEICTIC, DEIXI; APODICTIC, PARADIGM, POLICY², from Greek deiknunai, to show, and noun deigma (*deik-mn,), sample, pattern.

6. Zero-grade form *dik-. DIS; DICTYOSOME, from suffixed form *dik-skos, from Greek dikein, to throw (< “to direct an object”).

7. Form *dikä-. DICAS; SYNDIC, THEODICY, from Greek dikë, justice, right, court case.

(Pokorny deikì- 188.)

dek- To take, accept. Oldest form *dekì-, becoming *dek- in centum languages. Derivatives include decent, paradox, and disdain.

1. Suffixed (stative) form *dek-ë-. DECENT, from Latin decëre, to be fitting (< “to be acceptable”).

2. Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *dok-eye-. a. DOCENT, DOCILE, DOCTOR, DOCTRINE, DOCUMENT, from Latin docëre, to teach (< “to cause to accept”); b. DOGMA, DOGMATI; DOCETISM, DOXOLOGY, HETERODOX, ORTHODOX, PARADOX, from Greek dokein, to appear, seem, think (< “to cause to accept or be accepted”).

3. Suffixed form *dek-es-. a. Décor, DECORATE, from Latin decus, grace, ornament; b. DECOROUS, from Latin decor, seemliness, elegance, beauty.

4. Suffixed form *dek-no-. DAINTY, DEIGN, DIGNIT; CONDIGN, DIGNIFY, DISDAIN, INDIGN, INDIGNANT, INDIGNATION, from Latin dignus, worthy, deserving, fitting.

5. Reduplicated form *di-dk-ske-. DISCIPLE, DISCIPLINE, from Latin discere, to learn.

6. DOWEL, PANDECT, SYNECDOCHE, from Greek dekhesthai, to accept.

7. Suffixed o-grade form *dok-o-. DIPLODOCUS, from Greek dokos, beam, support.

(Pokorny 1. dekì- 189.)

dekm, Ten. Oldest form *dekìm,, becoming *dekm, in centum languages. Derivatives include ten, December, decimate, dean, hundred, century, and hecatomb.

I. Basic form *dekm,.

1 a. TEN, from Old English tïen, ten; b. Old Norse tjan, ten, in compound ättjän (see oktö(u) ). Both a and b from Germanic *tehun.

2. EIGHTEEN, FIFTEEN, FOURTEEN, NINETEEN, SEVENTEEN, SIXTEEN, THIRTEEN, from Old English suffix -tëne, -tïne, -tÿne, ten, -teen, from Germanic *tehan.

3. DECI-, DECIMAL, DECIMATE, DECUPLE, DECURION, DICKER, DIM; DECEMBER, DECEMVIR, DECENNARY, DECENNIUM, DECUSSATE, DOZEN, DUODECIMAL, OCTODECIMO, SEXTODECIMO, from Latin decem, ten.

4. DENARIUS, DENARY, DENIER², DINAR, from irregular Latin distributive dënï, by tens, ten each (formed by analogy with nönï, nine each).

5. DEAN, DECA-, DECADE, DOYE; DECAGON, DECALOGUE, DODECAGON, from Greek deka, ten.

II. Germanic *tigu-, ten, decad (of uncertain formation, as though < *deku-), in compound *twëgentig (see dwo- ).

III. Ordinal number *dekm,to-. TENTH, TITHE, from Old English teogotha, tëotha, tenth, from Germanic *teguntha-.

IV. Suffixed zero-grade form *-dkm,-tâ, reduced to *-km,tâ, and lengthened o-grade form *-dköm-tâ, reduced to *-kontâ.

1. NONAGENARIAN, OCTOGENARIAN, SEPTUAGINT, SEXAGENARY, from Latin -gintä, ten times.

2. PENTECOST, from Greek *-konta, ten times.

V. Suffixed zero-grade form *dkm,-tom, hundred, reduced to *km,tom.

1. HUNDRED, from Old English hundred, from dialectal North and West Germanic *hund(a)-rada- (-rada-, from Germanic *radam, number; see ar- ), from Germanic *hundam, hundred.

2. Germanic compound *thüs-hundi, “swollen hundred,” thousand (see teu@- ).

3. CENT, CENTAL, CENTAS, CENTAVO, CENTENARIAN, CENTENARY, CENTESIMAL, CENTI-, CENTIME, CENTNER, CENTUM, CENTURY, QINDARK; CENTENNIAL, CINQUECENTO, PERCENT, QUATTROCENTO, SEICENTO, SEN², SENITI, SEXCENTENARY, TRECENTO, from Latin centum, hundred.

4. HECATOMB, HECTO-, from Greek hekaton, a hundred (? dissimilated from *hem-katon, one hundred; *hem-, one; see sem-¹ ).

5. STOTINKA, from Old Church Slavonic sùto, hundred.

6. SATEM, from Avestan sat@m, hundred.

(Pokorny dekìm, 191.) See also compound root wïkm,tï.

deks- Right (opposite left); hence, south (from the viewpoint of one facing east). Oldest form *dekìs-, becoming *deks- in centum languages. Suffixed form *deks(i)-tero-. DESTRIER, DEXTER, DEXTERITY, DEXTRO; AMBIDEXTROUS, from Latin dexter, right, on the right side. (In Pokorny 1. dekì- 189.) Compare ner-¹ .

del-1 Long. Derivatives include linger, Lent, longitude, and lunge.

I. Probably extended and suffixed zero-grade form *dlon-gho-.

1 a. LONG¹; ALONG, LONGSHORE, from Old English lang, long, long; b. LANGLAUF, from Old High German lang, long; c. BELONG, from Old English gelang, along; d. LONG², from Old English denominative langian, to grow longer, yearn for, from Germanic *langön; e. LINGER, from Old English lengan, to prolong (possibly influenced by Old Norse lengja, to lengthen), from Germanic *langjan, to make long; f. LOMBARD, from Latin compound Longobardus, Langobardus (with Germanic ethnic name *Bardi). a–f all from Germanic *langaz, long. 2a. LENGTH, from Old English lengthu, length; b. LENT, from Old English lengten, lencten, spring, Lent, from West Germanic *langitinaz, lengthening of day; c. LING¹, from Middle English lenge, ling, ling, from a Low German source akin to Dutch lenghe, linghe, “long one.” a–c all from Germanic abstract noun *langithö.

3. LINGUIça, LONGERON, LONGITUDE, LOUNG; ELOIGN, ELONGATE, LONGEVITY, LUNGE, OBLONG, PROLONG, PURLOIN, from Latin longus, long.

II. Possibly suffixed variant form *dl,@-gho-. DOLICHOCEPHALIC, DOLICHOCRANIAL, from Greek dolikhos, long.

(Pokorny 5. del- 196.)

del-2 To recount, count. O-grade form *dol-.

1. TELL¹, from Old English tellan, to count, recount, from Germanic *taljan.

2. TALL, from Old English getæl, quick, ready, from West Germanic *(ge-)tala-. 3a. TALE, from Old English talu, story; b. TAAL², from Middle Dutch täle, speech, language. Both a and b from Germanic *talö.

4. TALK, from Middle English talken, to talk, from a source probably akin to Old English denominative talian, to tell, relate.

5. Perhaps Greek dolos, ruse, snare: DOLERITE, SEDULOUS.

(Pokorny 1. del- 193.)

dem- House, household. Derivatives include dome, domestic, and timber.

1. Suffixed o-grade form *dom-o-, *dom-u-, house. a. DOME, DOMESTIC, DOMICIL; MAJOR-domo, from Latin domus, house; b. suffixed form *dom-o-no-. DAME, DAN², DANGER, DOM, DOMAIN, DOMINATE, DOMINICAL, DOMINIE, DOMINION, DOMINO¹, DOMINO², DON¹, DONNA, DUNGEO; BELLADONNA, DUENDE, MADAM, MADAME, MADEMOISELLE, MADONNA, PREDOMINATE, from Latin dominus, master of a household (feminine domina).

2. Possibly suffixed lengthened-grade form *döm-n,. DOME, from Greek döma, house.

3. Compound *dems-pot-, “house-master” (*-pot-, powerful; see poti- ). DESPINA, DESPOT, from Greek despotës, master, lord, and feminine despoina, lady, queen, mistress (< *dems-pot-nya).

4. Root form *dem(@₂)-, to build (possibly a separate root). a. TIMBER, from Old English timber, building material, lumber, from Germanic *timram; b. TOFT, from Old Norse topt, homestead, from Germanic *tumftö.

(Pokorny dem- 198.)

dem@- To constrain, force, especially to break in (horses). Oldest form *dem@₂-.

1. Suffixed o-grade form *dom(@)-o-. TAME, from Old English tam, domesticated, from Germanic *tamaz.

2. O-grade form *dom@-. DAUN; INDOMITABLE, from Latin domäre, to tame, subdue.

3. Zero-grade form *dm,@-. ADAMANT, DIAMOND, from Greek damän, to tame (> adamäs, unconquerable, from *n,-dm,@-nt-).

(Pokorny (dem@-) 199.)

dent- Tooth. Originally *@₁d-ent-, “biting,” present participle of ed- in the earlier meaning “to bite.”

1. O-grade form *dont-. TOOTH, from Old English töth, tooth, from Germanic *tanthuz.

2. Zero-grade form *dn,t-. TUSK, from Old English tüsc, tüx, canine tooth, from Germanic *tunth-sk-.

3. Full-grade form *dent-. DENTAL, DENTATE, DENTI-, DENTICLE, DENTIS; DANDELION, EDENTATE, EDENTULOUS, INDENT¹, INDENTURE, TRIDENT, from Latin dëns (stem dent-), tooth.

4. O-grade variant form *@dont-, ultimately becoming odont- in Greek. -odon, -odont, ODONTO; CERATODUS, MASTODON, from Greek odön, odous, tooth. (In Pokorny ed- 287.)

der- To split, peel, flay; with derivatives referring to skin and leather.

1. TEAR¹, from Old English teran, to tear, from Germanic *teran.

2. TART¹, from Old English teart, sharp, severe, from Germanic *ter-t-.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *dr,-tom, “something separated or discarded.” TURD, from Old English tord, turd, from Germanic *turdam, turd.

4. Reduplicated form *de-dr-u-. TETTER, from Old English tet(e)r, eruption, skin disease.

5. DERRIS, from Greek derris, leather covering.

6. Suffixed form *der-mn,. -derm, DERMA¹, -derma, DERMATO; EPIDERMIS, from Greek derma, skin.

7. DAHL, DHURRIE, from Sanskrit darati, he splits.

(Pokorny 4. der- 206.)

derk- To see. Oldest form *derkì-, becoming *derk- in centum languages. Suffixed zero-grade form *dr,k-on(t)-. DRAGON, DRAGOON, DRAKE², TARRAGO; RANKLE, from Greek drakö, serpent, dragon (< “monster with the evil eye”).

(Pokorny derkì- 213.)

deru- Also dreu-. To be firm, solid, steadfast; hence specialized senses “wood,” “tree,” and derivatives referring to objects made of wood. Derivatives include tree, trust, betroth, endure, and druid.

1. Suffixed variant form *drew-o-. a. TREE, from Old English trëow, tree, from Germanic *trewam; b. TRUCE, from Old English trëow, pledge, from Germanic *treuwö.

2. Variant form dreu-. a. TRUE, from Old English trëowe, firm, true; b. TROW, from Old English trëowian, trüwian, to trust; c. TRIG¹, from Old Norse tryggr, firm, true; d. TROTH, TRUT; BETROTH, from Old English trëowth, faith, loyalty, truth, from Germanic abstract noun *treuwithö; e. TRUST, from Old Norse traust, confidence, firmness, from Germanic abstract noun *traustam; f. TRYST, from Old French triste, waiting place (< “place where one waits trustingly”), probably from a source akin to Old Norse denominative treysta, to trust, make firm. a–f all from Germanic *treuwaz. 3. Variant form *drou-. TRAY, from Old English trëg, trïg, wooden board, from Germanic *traujam.

4. Suffixed zero-grade form *dru-ko-. a. TROUGH, from Old English trog, wooden vessel, tray; b. TRUG, from Old Norse trog, trough. Both a and b from Germanic *trugaz.

5. Suffixed zero-grade form *dru-mo-. a. TRIM, from Old English trum, firm, strong; b. SHELTER, from Old English truma, troop. Both a and b from Germanic *trum-.

6. Variant form *derw-. TAR¹, from Old English te(o)ru, resin, pitch (obtained from the pine tree), from Germanic *terw-.

7. Suffixed variant form *drü-ro-. DOUR, DURAMEN, DURESS, DURU; DURA mater, ENDURE, INDURATE, OBDURATE, from Latin dürus, hard (many of whose English derivatives represent a semantic cross with Latin düräre, to last long; see deu@- ).

8. Lengthened zero-grade form *drü-. DRUPE, DRYA; DRYOPITHECINE, GERMANDER, HAMADRYAD, from Greek drüs, oak.

9. Reduplicated form *der-drew-, dissimilated with suffix in *der-drew-on. DENDRO-, DENDRO; PHILODENDRON, RHODODENDRON, from Greek dendron, tree.

10. DRUID, from Latin druides, druids, probably from Celtic compound *dru-wid-, “strong seer” (*wid-, seeing; see weid- ), the Celtic priestly caste.

11. O-grade form *doru-. DEODAR, from Sanskrit däru, wood, timber.

(Pokorny deru- 214.)

deu-1 To lack, be wanting.

1. Possibly suffixed form *deu-s-. a. TIRE¹, from Old English tëorian, tyrian, to fail, tire (< “to fall behind”), from Germanic *teuzön; b. DEONTOLOGY, from Greek dein, to lack, want.

2. Suffixed form *deu-tero-. DEUTERO; DEUTERAGONIST, DEUTERIUM, DEUTERONOMY, from Greek deuteros, “missing,” next, second.

(Pokorny 3. deu- 219.) (For suffixed zero-grade form *du-s-, combining form of *dew-es-, a lack, see dus- .) (In Pokorny 3. deu- 219.)

deu-2 To do, perform, show favor, revere. Derivatives include embellish and dynamite.

1. Suffixed form *dw-eno-. BONBON, BONITO, BONNY, BONUS, BOON², BOUNT; BONANZA, BONHOMIE, DEBONAIR, from Latin bonus, good (< “useful, efficient, working”).

2. Adverbial form *dw-enë. BENEDICTION, BENEFACTION, BENEFACTOR, BENEFIC, BENEFICENCE, BENEFIT, BENEVOLENT, BENIGN, HERB bennet, from Latin bene, well.

3. Diminutive *dw-en-elo-. BEAU, BEAUTY, BELL; BELDAM, BELLADONNA, BELVEDERE, EMBELLISH, from Latin bellus, handsome, pretty, fine.

4. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *dw-eye-. BEATITUD; BEATIFIC, BEATIFY, from Latin beäre, to make blessed.

5. Possible (but unlikely for formal and semantic reasons) suffixed zero-grade form *du-n@-. DYNAMIC, DYNAMITE, DYNAST, DYNAST; AERODYNE, from Greek dunasthai, to be able.

(Pokorny 2. (deu-) 218.)

deu@- Also dwa@-. Long (in duration). Oldest form *deu@₂- with variant (metathesized) *dwe@₂-, the latter colored to *dwa@₂- and contracted to *dwä-. Suffixed zero-grade form *dü-ro- (< *du@-ro-). DURABLE, DURANCE, DURATION, DURIN; PERDURABLE, THERMODURIC, from Latin düräre, to last. (In Pokorny 3. deu- 219.)

deuk- To lead. Derivatives include wanton, team, duke, subdue, and educate.

1 a. TU; WANTON, from Old English tëon, to pull, draw, lead; b. ZUGUNRUHE, ZUGZWANG, from Old High German ziohan, to pull. Both a and b from Germanic *teuhan.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *duk-ä-. TOW¹, TAUT, from Old English togian, to draw, drag, from Germanic *tugön.

3. Suffixed o-grade form *douk-eyo-. TIE, from Old English *tïegan, tïgan, to bind.

4. Suffixed o-grade form *douk-mo-. TEAM, from Old English tëam, descendant, family, race, brood, team, from Germanic *tau(h)maz.

5. TEEM¹, from Old English tëman, tïeman, to beget, from Germanic denominative *tau(h)mjan.

6. Basic form *deuk-. DOGE, DOUCHE, DUCAL, DUCAT, DUCE, DUCHESS, DUCHY, DUCT, DUCTILE, DUK; ABDUCENS, ABDUCT, ADDUCE, AQUEDUCT, CIRCUMDUCTION, CON³, CONDOTTIERE, CONDUCE, CONDUCT, DEDUCE, DEDUCT, EDUCE, ENDUE, INDUCE, INTRODUCE, PRODUCE, REDOUBT, REDUCE, SEDUCTION, SUBDUCTION, SUBDUE, TRADUCE, TRANSDUCER, from Latin dücere, to lead.

7. Suffixed zero-grade form *duk-ä-. EDUCATE, from Latin ëducäre, to lead out, bring up (ë- < ex-, out; see eghs ).

(Pokorny deuk- 220.)

dhë- To set, put. Contracted from *dhe@₁-. Derivatives include deed, doom, fashion, defeat, feckless, sacrifice, satisfy, face, and synthesis.

I. Basic form *dhë-.

1. Suffixed form *dhë-ti-, “thing laid down or done, law, deed.” DEE; INDEED, from Old English daëd, doing, deed, from Germanic *dëdiz.

2. Suffixed form *dhë-k-. THECA, TICK³; AMPHITHECIUM, APOTHECARY, APOTHECIUM, BIBLIOTHECA, BODEGA, BOUTIQUE, CLEISTOTHECIUM, ENDOTHECIUM, PERITHECIUM, from Greek thëkë, receptacle.

3. Basic form *dhë-. BARD², PURDAH, from Old Persian dä-, to place.

4. Suffixed form *dhë-to-, set down, created, in Old Iranian compound *khvatö-däta- (see s(w)e- ).

II. O-grade form *dhö-.

1. DO¹; FORDO, from Old English dön, to do, from Germanic *dön.

2. Suffixed o-grade form *dhö-men-. ABDOMEN, from Latin abdömen, belly, abdomen, perhaps “part placed away, concealed part” (ab-, away; see apo).

3. Suffixed o-grade form *dhö-mo-. a. DOOM, from Old English döm, judgment (< “thing set or put down”); b. -dom, from Old English -döm, abstract suffix indicating state, condition, or power; c. Old Norse -dömr, condition, in compound hördömr (see kä- ); d. DUMA, DUMKA, from Russian Duma, Duma, from a Germanic source akin to Gothic döms, judgment; e. DEEM, from Old English dëman, to judge, from Germanic denominative dömjan. a–e all from Germanic dömaz.

4. Suffixed o-grade form *dhö-t- in compound *sakro-dhöt- (see sak- ).

III. Zero-grade form *dh@-.

1 a. Prefixed form *kom-dh@-. ABSCOND, INCONDITE, RECONDITE, SCONCE², from Latin condere, to put together, establish, preserve (*kom, together; see kom ); b. prefixed and suffixed form *kom-dh(@)-yo-. CONDIMENT, SALMAGUNDI, from Latin condïre, to season, flavor; c. compound *kred-dh@- (see kerd- ); d. compound suffixed form *g^wr,@-dh(@)-o- (see g^wer@-² ).

2. Suffixed zero-grade form dh@-k-. a. -facient, FACT, FACTION¹, -faction, FACTITIOUS, FACTITIVE, FACTOR, FACTORY, FAENA, FASHION, FEASIBLE, FEAT¹, FEATURE, FETISH, -fic, -fy, HACIEND; AFFAIR, AFFECT¹, AFFECT², AFFECTION, AMPLIFY, ARTIFACT, ARTIFICE, BEATIFIC, BENEFACTION, BENEFIC, BENEFICE, BENEFICENCE, BENEFIT, CHAFE, COMFIT, CONFECT, CONFETTI, COUNTERFEIT, DEFEASANCE, DEFEAT, DEFECT, DEFICIENT, DISCOMFIT, EDIFICE, EDIFY, EFFECT, EFFICACIOUS, EFFICIENT, FACSIMILE, FACTOTUM, FECKLESS, FORFEIT, INFECT, JUSTIFY, MALEFACTOR, MALFEASANCE, MANUFACTURE, MISFEASANCE, MODIFY, MOLLIFY, NIDIFY, NOTIFY, NULLIFY, OFFICINAL, ORIFICE, PERFECT, PETRIFY, PLUPERFECT, PONTIFEX, PREFECT, PROFICIENT, PROFIT, PUTREFY, QUALIFY, RAREFY, RECTIFY, REFECT, REFECTORY, RUBEFACIENT, SACRIFICE, SATISFY, SPINIFEX, SUFFICE, SUFFICIENT, SURFEIT, TUBIFEX, TUMEFACIENT, VIVIFY, from Latin facere (< *fak-yo-), to do, make, and Latin combining form -fex (< *-fak-s), “maker”; b. FAçade, FACE, FACET, FACIAL, FACIE; DEFACE, EFFACE, SURFACE, from Latin derivative faciës, shape, face (< “form imposed on something”); c. OFFICE, from Latin compound officium (< *opi-fici-om), service, duty, business, performance of work (*opi-, work; see op- ); d. further suffixed form *dh@-k-li-. FACILE, FACILITATE, FACULTY, DIFFICULTY, from Latin facilis (< Archaic Latin facul), feasible, easy.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *dh@-s- (probably identical with zero-grade of dhës- ). NEFARIOUS, from Latin fäs, divine law, right.

4. MULTIFARIOUS, OMNIFARIOUS, from Latin -färiam, adverbial suffix, as in bifäriam, in two places, parts, double, from *dwi-dh(@)-, “making two” (*dwi-, two; see dwo- ).

5. Reduplicated form *dhi-dh@-. THESIS, THETI; ANATHEMA, ANTITHESIS, DIATHESIS, EPENTHESIS, EPITHET, HYPOTHECATE, HYPOTHESIS, METATHESIS, PARENTHESIS, PROSTHESIS, PROTHESIS, SYNTHESIS, from Greek tithenai, to put, with zero-grade noun thesis (*dh@-ti-), a placing, and verbal adjective thetos (*dh@-to-), placed.

6. Suffixed zero-grade form *dh@-mn,. THEMATIC, THEME, from Greek thema, “thing placed,” proposition.

7. Reduplicated form *dhe-dhë-. SAMHITA, SANDHI, from Sanskrit dadhäti, he places (past participle -hita-, from suffixed zero-grade *dh@-to-).

8. Reduced form *dh- in compound *au-dh- (see au- ).

(Pokorny 2. dhë- 235.)

dhegwh- To burn, warm.

1. Suffixed o-grade (causative) form *dhog^wh-eyo-. FOMENT, FOMITE, from Latin fovë, to warm, cherish, foment.

2. Suffixed basic form dheg^wh-rä-. TEPHRA, from Greek tephrä, ash.

(Pokorny dhegu_h- 240.)

dhë(i)- To suck. Contracted from *dhe@₁(i)-. Derivatives include female, fawn², fetus, fennel, and affiliate.

1. Suffixed reduced form *dhë-mnä-. FEMALE, FEME, FEMININ; EFFEMINATE, from Latin fëmina, woman (< “she who suckles”).

2. Suffixed reduced form *dhë-to-. FAWN², FETAL, FETU; EFFETE, FETICIDE, SUPERFETATE, from Latin fëtus, pregnancy, childbearing, offspring, with adjective fëtus, fëta, pregnant.

3. Suffixed reduced form *dhë-kwondo-. FECUND, from Latin fëcundus, fruitful.

4. Suffixed reduced form *dhë-no-. FENNEL, FINOCHI; FENUGREEK, SAINFOIN, from Latin fënum, faenum, hay (< “produce”).

5. Probably suffixed zero-grade form *dhï-lyo- (< *dhi@-lyo-). FILIAL, FILIATE, FILS¹; AFFILIATE, HIDALGO, from Latin fïlius, son, and fïlia, daughter (but these are conceivably from the root bheu@-).

6. Suffixed reduced form *dhë-lo-. FELLATIO, from Latin fëläre, felläre, to suck.

7. Suffixed reduced form *dhë-l-ïk-. FELICITATE, FELICIT; FELICIFIC, INFELICITY, from Latin fëlïx, fruitful, fertile, lucky, happy.

8. Suffixed reduced form *dhë-lä-. ENDOTHELIUM, EPITHELIUM, MESOTHELIUM, from Greek thëlë, nipple.

9. Suffixed reduced form *dhë-l-u-. THEELIN, from Greek thëlus, female.

(Pokorny dhë(i)- 241.)

dheigh- To form, build. Oldest form *dheigìh-, becoming *dheigh- in centum languages. Derivatives include dairy, lady, dough, and paradise.

1. DAIRY, from Old English daëge, bread kneader, from Germanic *daigjön-.

2. LADY, from Old English compound hlaëfdige, mistress of a household (< “bread kneader”; hläf, bread, loaf), from Germanic *dïg-.

3. Suffixed o-grade form *dhoigh-o-. a. DOUGH, from Old English däg, dough; b. TEIGLACH, from Old High German teic, dough. Both a and b from Germanic *daigaz.

4. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhigh-ürä-. FIGURE, FIGURIN; CONFIGURE, DISFIGURE, PREFIGURE, TRANSFIGURE, from Latin figüra, form, shape (< “result of kneading”).

5. Nasalized zero-grade form *dhi-n-gh-. FAINéant, FAINT, FEIGN, FEINT, FICTILE, FICTION, FIGMEN; EFFIGY, from Latin fingere, to shape.

6. Probable nasalized zero-grade form *dhi-n-g(h)-. THIGMOTAXIS, THIXOTROPY, from Greek thinganein, to touch.

7. Suffixed o-grade form *dhoigh-o-. PARADISE, from Avestan daëza-, wall (originally made of clay or mud bricks).

(Pokorny dheigìh- 244.)

dher- To hold firmly, support. Derivatives include infirmary and throne.

1. Suffixed form *dher-mo-. FARM, FERMATA, FIRM¹, FIRM², FIRMAMEN; AFFIRM, CONFIRM, FURL, INFIRM, INFIRMARY, from Latin firmus, firm, strong.

2. Perhaps extended form *dhergh-, seen by some as the source of Latin fortis, strong, but this is more likely from bhergh-² .

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhr-ono-. THRONE, from Greek thronos, seat, throne (< “support”).

4. Suffixed form *dher-mn,. DHARMA, from Sanskrit dharma, statute, law (< “that which is established firmly”).

5. Suffixed form *dher-eno-. DHARNA, from Prakrit dharan.a, a holding firm.

6. Suffixed o-grade form *dhor-o-. SIRDAR, TAHSILDAR, ZAMINDAR, from Iranian dära-, holding, whence Persian -där.

(Pokorny 2. dher- 252.)

dhers- To venture (risquer, oser), be bold (hardi). O-grade form *dhors- and zero-grade form *dhr,s-. DARE, DURST, from Old English dearr and durst, first and third person singular present and past indicative of durran, to venture, respectively from Germanic *dors- and *durs-.

(Pokorny dhers- 259.)

dhës- Root of words in religious concepts. Contracted from *dhe@₁s-. Possibly an extension of dhë- . Derivatives include feast, fanatic, atheism, and enthusiasm.

1. Suffixed form *dhës-yä-. FAIR², FERIA, from Latin fëriae (< Archaic Latin fësiae), holidays.

2. Suffixed form *dhës-to-. FEAST, -fest, FESTAL, FESTIVAL, FESTIVE, FESTOON, FETE, FIEST; OKTOBERFEST, from Latin fëstus, festive.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *dh@s-no-. FANATI; PROFANE, from Latin fänum, temple.

4. Suffixed zero-grade form *dh@s-o-. THEO; APOTHEOSIS, ATHEISM, ENTHUSIASM, HENOTHEISM, PANTHEON, POLYTHEISM, TIFFANY, from Greek theos (< *thes-os), god.

(Pokorny dhës- 259.)

dheu-1 To flow. a. DEW, from Old English dëaw, dew; b. SUNDEW, from Middle Dutch dau, dew; c. Germanic compound *melith-dauwaz (see melit- ). a–c all from Germanic *dauwaz, dew.

(Pokorny 1. dheu- 259.)

dheu-2 To die. Also dheu@- (oldest form *dheu@₂-).

1. Suffixed o-grade form *dhou-to-. DEAD, from Old English dëad, dead, from Germanic *daudaz.

2. Suffixed o-grade form *dhou-tu-. DEATH, from Old English dëath, death, from Germanic *dauthuz.

3. Suffixed o-grade form *dhow-yo-. DIE¹, from Old Norse deyja, to die.

4. Extended zero-grade form *dhu@i-, metathesized to *dhwi@-, contracted to *dhwï-, whence suffixed form *dhwï-no-. DWINDLE, from Old English dwïnan, to diminish, languish, from Germanic *dwïnan.

(Pokorny 2. dheu- 260.) Compare dheu@- .

dheub- Also dheubh-. Deep, hollow.

1. DEEP, DEPTH, from Old English dëop, deep, from Germanic *deupaz.

2. DIP, from Old English dyppan, to immerse, dip, from Germanic expressive denominative *duppjan.

3. Parallel root form *dheubh-. DIVE, from Old English dÿfan, to dip, and düfan, to sink, dive, from Germanic verb *dübjan, from *deub-, *dub-.

4. Suffixed parallel root form *dhûbh-(o)n-, with expressive variants. PYTHON, PYTHON, TYPHON, from Greek Püthön and Tuphön, mythical monsters, from *dhub(h)-n- and *b(h)ud(h)-n-, which already in Indo-European were doublets by inversion, referring to “bottom,” “foundation,” “depths,” and the mythological monsters that inhabited them.

(Pokorny dheu-b- 267.)

dheu@- To close, finish, come full circle. Oldest form *dheu@₂-. Probably related to dheu-² , “to die.”

1. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhü-no- (< *dhu@-no-), enclosed, fortified place; hill-fort. a. i DOWN¹, DOWN³, from Old English dün, hill; ii DUNE, from Middle Dutch düne, sandy hill. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *dünaz, possibly from *dhü-no-; b. TOWN, from Old English tün, enclosed place, homestead, village, from Germanic *tünaz, fortified place, borrowed from Celtic *dü-no-, hill, stronghold.

2. Suffixed form *dhü-nes- (< *dhu@-nes-). FUNERAL, from Latin fünus, funeral. (In Pokorny 4. dheu- 261.)

dheugh- To produce something of utility.

1. DOUGHTY, from Old English dyhtig, dohtig, strong (< “productive”), from Germanic extended form *duht-.

2. Suffixed form *dheugh-os-. HEPTATEUCH, HEXATEUCH, PENTATEUCH, from Greek teukhos (< *theukhos), gear (accoutrement, harnais, appareil), anything produced, tool, container, scroll.

(Pokorny dheugh- 271.)

dhghem- Earth. Oldest form *dhgìhem-, becoming *dhghem- in centum languages. Derivatives include bridegroom, chameleon, and homicide.

1. Suffixed zero-grade form *(dh)ghm,-on-, “earthling.” BRIDEGROOM, from Old English guma, man, from Germanic *gumön-.

2. O-grade form *dh(e)ghom-. CHTHONI; AUTOCHTHON, from Greek khthön, earth.

3. Zero-grade form *dhghm,-. CHAMAEPHYTE, CHAMELEON, CHAMOMILE, GERMANDER, from Greek khamai, on the ground.

4. Suffixed o-grade form *(dh)ghom-o-. HUMBLE, HUMILIATE, HUMILITY, HUMUS¹, OMERT; EXHUME, INHUME, TRANSHUMANCE, from Latin humus, earth.

5. Suffixed o-grade form *(dh)ghom-on-, “earthling.” a. HOMAGE, HOMBRE¹, HOMINID, HOMO¹, HOMUNCULUS, OMBR; BONHOMIE, HOMICIDE, from Latin homö, human being, man; b. HUMAN, HUMANE, from Latin hümänus, human, kind, humane (in part from dhghem- ).

6. Suffixed form *(dh)ghem-yä-. CHERNOZEM, SIEROZEM, ZEMSTVO, from Old Russian zemì, land, earth.

7. Full-grade form *(dh)ghem-. ZAMINDAR, from Persian zamïn, earth, land.

(Pokorny gìhd¬em- 414.)

dhgh(y)es- Yesterday. Oldest form *dhgìh(y)es-, becoming *dhgh(y)es- in centum languages. Suffixed (comparative) form *(dh)ghes-ter-. YESTER-, YESTERDAY, from Old English geostran, giestran, “yester-,” from Germanic *ges-ter-.

lat hesterno die, heri (adv)
grec cqes
sanscrit hyas, hyastana ("d'hier")

(Pokorny gìhd¬i_és 416.)

dhïgw- To stick, fix.

1 a. DIKE¹, DITCH, from Old English dïc, trench, moat; b. DIG, from Middle English diggen, to dig, from a source perhaps akin to Old French digue, trench. Both a and b from Germanic *dïk-.

2. FIBULA, FICHU, FINCA, FISHGIG, FIX, FIXATE, FIXITY, FIXTUR; AFFIX, ANTEFIX, CRUCIFY, INFIBULATE, INFIX, MICROFICHE, PREFIX, SUFFIX, TRANSFIX, from Latin fïgere, to fasten, fix, and from fïbula, clasp (shortened from *fïvibula, from fïvere, archaic variant of fïgere).

(Pokorny dhëigu_- 243.)

dhreg- To draw (tirer), glide (glisser). Oldest form *dhregì-, becoming *dhreg- in centum languages.

1. DRINK, from Old English drincan, to drink, from nasalized Germanic form *drenkan, to draw into the mouth, drink.

2. DRENCH, from Old English drencan, to soak, from nasalized o-grade Germanic causative form *drankjan, “to cause to drink.”

3. DROWN, from a Scandinavian or late Old English source similar to Old Norse drukkna, to drown, from Germanic zero-grade suffixed form *drunk-nön.

(Pokorny dhregì- 273.)

dhreibh- To drive, push; snow.

1. DRIVE, DROVE², from Old English drïfan, to drive, rush, from Germanic *drïban.

2. DRIFT, from Middle English drift, drove, herd, akin to Old Norse drift, snowdrift, and Middle Dutch drift, herd, from Germanic zero-grade suffixed form *driftiz.

(Pokorny dhreibh- 274.)

dhreu- To fall, flow, drip, droop. Derivatives include dreary and drowse.

1. Extended form *dhreus-. DRIZZLE, from Old English -drysnian (in gedrysnian, to pass away, vanish), from zero-grade Germanic derived verb *drus-inön.

2. Extended o-grade form *dhrous-. a. DREARY, from Old English drëor, flowing blood, from Germanic *drauzaz; b. DROWSE, from Old English drüsian, to be sluggish, from Germanic *drüsjan.

3. Extended zero-grade form *dhrub-. a. DROP, from Old English dropa, drop, from Germanic *drupan; b. DROOP, from Old Norse drüpa, to hang down, from Germanic *drüpön, to let fall; c. DRIP, from Middle English drippen, to drip, drop, from an unattested Old English *dryppan or another source akin to Old English droppa, drop, from Germanic geminated *drupp-; d. Germanic *drup-, to drip, in compound *obisdrup- (see upo-).

4. Suffixed zero-grade form *dhrubh-yo-. LITHOTRIPTER, LITHOTRITY, from Greek thruptein, to crumble.

(Pokorny dhreu- 274.)

dhug@ter- Daughter. Oldest form *dhug@₂ter-. DAUGHTER, from Old English dohtor, daughter, from Germanic *dohtër.

(Pokorny dhug(h)@ter- 277.)

dhwer- Door, doorway (usually in plural). Originally an ablauting noun *dhwor, *dhur-, in the plural, designating the entrance to the enclosure (*dhwor-o-) surrounding the house proper. Derivatives include forest and foreign.

1. Zero-grade form *dhur- in suffixed forms *dhur-n,s (accusative plural) and *dhur-o- (neuter). DOOR, from Old English duru, door (feminine, originally plural), and dor, door (neuter), respectively from Germanic *durunz and *duram.

2. Suffixed o-grade form *dhwor-äns (accusative plural). FAROUCHE, FOREIGN, VICAR forane, from Latin foräs, (toward) out of doors, outside.

3. Suffixed o-grade form *dhwor-ois (locative plural). FORES; AFFOREST, FAUBOURG, FORECLOSE, FORFEIT, from Latin forïs, (being) out of doors.

4. Suffixed o-grade form *dhwor-o-. FORENSIC, FORUM, from Latin forum, marketplace (originally the enclosed space around a home).

5. DURBAR, from Old Persian duvara-, door, gate.

6. Zero-grade form *dhur-. THYROID, from Greek thurä, door.

(Pokorny dhu_êr- 278.)

dlegh- To engage oneself. European root found in Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, and possibly Latin.

1 a. PLAY, from Old English plegian, to exercise oneself, play; b. PLEDG; FRANKPLEDGE, REPLEVIN, from Late Latin plevium (> Old French plevir, to pledge), pledge, guarantee; c. PLIGHT², from Old English pliht, danger, peril, from Germanic derivative noun *plehti-. a–c from Germanic *plegan, probably altered (by dissimilation) from *tlegan.

2. Zero-grade form *dl,gh-. INDULGE, from Latin indulgëre, to indulge, explained by some as from prefixed and suffixed stative form *en-dl,gh-ë- (*en-, in; see en ).

(Pokorny dhl,gh- 271.)

dn,ghü- Tongue. Oldest form *dn,gìhu@₂-, contracted to *dn,gìhü-, becoming *dn,ghü- in centum languages.

1 a. TONGUE, from Old English tunge, tongue; b. BILTONG, from Middle Dutch tonghe, tongue. Both a and b from Germanic *tungön-.

2. LANGUAGE, LANGUET, LIGULA, LIGULE, LINGO, LINGUA, LINGUINE, LINGUIS; BILINGUAL, from Latin lingua (< Archaic Latin dingua), tongue, language.

(Pokorny dn,gìhü 223.)

dö- To give. Oldest form *de@₃-, colored to *do@₃-, contracted to *dö-. Derivatives include betray, surrender, vend, dose, and antidote.

1 a. Zero-grade form *d@-. DADO, DATE¹, DATIVE, DATUM, DIE²; ADD, BETRAY, EDITION, PERDITION, RENDER, RENT¹, SURRENDER, TRADITION, TRAITOR, TREASON, VEND, from Latin dare, to give; b. Greek dosis, something given (see 4 below).

2. Suffixed form *dö-no-. DONATION, DONATIVE, DONO; CONDONE, PARDON, from Latin dönum, gift.

3. Suffixed form *dö-t(i)-. a. DOT², DOWAGER, DOWER, DOWR; ENDOW, from Latin dös (genitive dötis), dowry; b. DACHA, from Russian dacha, gift, dacha, from Slavic *datja; c. SAMIZDAT, from Russian samizdat, samizdat, from dat', to give.

4. Suffixed form *dö-ro-. LOBSTER thermidor, PANDORA, from Greek döron, gift.

5. Reduplicated form *di-dö-. DOS; ANECDOTE, ANTIDOTE, APODOSIS, EPIDOTE, from Greek didonai, to give, with zero-grade noun dosis (< *d@-ti-), something given.

(Pokorny dö- 223.)

dus- Bad, evil; mis- (used as a prefix). Derivative of deu-¹ . DYS-, from Greek dus-, bad.

(Pokorny dus- 227.)

dwo- Two. Derivatives include twilight, biscuit, between, combine, diploma, and doubt.

I. Variant form *duwo.

1 a. TWO, from Old English twâ, two (nominative feminine and neuter); b. TWAI; TWAYBLADE, from Old English twëgen, two (nominative and accusative masculine). Both a and b from Germanic *twa, two.

2. TWELFTH, TWELVE, from Old English twelf, twelve, and twelfta, twelfth, from Germanic compound *twa-lif-, “two left (over from ten),” twelve (*-lif-, left; see leik^w- ).

II. Adverbial form *dwis and combining form *dwi-.

1 a. TWIBILL, TWILIGHT, from Old English twi-, two; b. ZWIEBACK, ZWITTERION, from Old High German zwi-, twice. Both a and b from Germanic *twi-.

2. BI-¹, BI; BALANCE, BAROUCHE, BEZEL, BISCUIT, BISTORT, from Latin bis (combining form bi-), twice.

3. DI-¹, from Greek dis (combining form di-), twice.

4. TWIST, from Old English -twist, divided object, fork, rope, from Germanic *twis.

5. TWICE, from Old English twige, twiga, twice, from Germanic *twiyes.

6. TWENTY, from Old English twëntig, twenty, from Germanic compound *twëgentig, “twice ten” (*-tig, ten; see dekm, ).

7. TWINE, from Old English twïn, double thread, from Germanic *twïhna, double thread, twisted thread.

8. BETWEEN, BETWIXT, TWIXT, from Old English betwëonum and betweox, betwix, between, from Germanic compounds *bi-twïhna and *bi-twisk, “at the middle point of two” (bi, at, by; see ambhi ).

9. TWILL, from Old English twilic, woven of double thread, from Germanic compound *twilic-, “two-threaded fabric.”

10. Suffixed form *dwis-no-. a. TWIN, from Old English twinn, getwinn, two by two, twin, from Germanic *twisnaz, double; b. BI-¹, BINAL, BINAR; COMBINE, PINOCHLE, from Latin bïnï, two by two, two each.

11. Suffixed form *dwi-ko-. TWIG¹, from Old English twigge, a branch, from Germanic *twig(g)a, a fork.

12. Compound *dwi-plo-, twofold (*-plo-, -fold; see pel-² ). DIPLO-, DIPLOE, DIPLOID, DIPLOM; ANADIPLOSIS, DIPLODOCUS, from Greek diploos, diplous, twofold.

13. Suffixed reduplicated form *dwi-du-mo-. DIDYMIUM, DIDYMOU; EPIDIDYMIS, from Greek didumos, double, the testicles.

14. Suffixed form *dwi-gha. DICHASIUM, DICHO-, from Greek dikha, in two.

III. Inflected form *duwö.

1. DEUCE¹, DOZEN, DUAL, DUET, DUO, DUO; DUODECIMAL, DUUMVIR, from Latin duo, two.

2. DUAD, DYA; DODECAGON, HENDIADYS, from Greek duo, duö, two.

IV. Variant form *du-.

1. Compound *du-plo-, twofold (*-plo-, -fold; see pel-² ). DOUBLE, DOUBLET, DOUBLOON, DUPLE, from Latin duplus, double.

2. Compound *du-plek-, twofold (*-plek-, -fold; see plek- ). DUPLEX, DUPLICATE, DUPLICIT; CONDUPLICATE, from Latin duplex, double.

3. Suffixed form *du-bhw-io-. DOUBT, DUBIOU; REDOUBTABLE, from Latin dubius, doubtful (< “hesitating between two alternatives”), and dubitäre, to be in doubt.

(Pokorny du_ö(u) 228.)

dyeu- To shine (and in many derivatives, “sky, heaven, god”). Zero-grades *dyu- and *diw-. Derivatives include Tuesday, divine, jovial, Jupiter, diary, dismal, journey, and psychedelic.

I. Basic form *dyeu-, Jove, the name of the god of the bright sky, head of the Indo-European pantheon.

1. JOVE, JOVIA; SANGIOVESE, from Latin Iovis, Jupiter, or Iov-, stem of Iuppiter, Jupiter.

2. JULY, from Latin Iülius, “descended from Jupiter” (name of a Roman gens), from derivative *iou-il-.

3. Vocative compound *dyeu-p@ter, “O father Jove” (*p@ter-, father; see p@ter- ). JUPITER, from Latin Iuppiter, Iüpiter, head of the Roman pantheon.

4. DIONE, ZEU; DIANTHUS, DIOSCURI, from Greek Zeus (genitive Dios), Zeus.

II. Noun *deiwos, god, formed by e-insertion to the zero-grade *diw- and suffixation of (accented) -o-.

1 a. TIU, TUESDAY, from Old English Tïw (genitive Tïwes), god of war and sky; b. TYR, from Old Norse Tÿr, sky god. Both a and b from Germanic *Tïwaz.

2. DEISM, DEITY, DEUS, JOS; ADIEU, DEIFIC, from Latin deus, god.

3. DIVA, DIVINE, from Latin dïvus, divine, god.

4. DIS, DIVES, from Latin dïves, rich (< “fortunate, blessed, divine”).

5. Suffixed zero-grade form *diw-yo-, heavenly. DIANA, from Latin Diäna, moon goddess.

6. DEV; DEODAR, DEVANAGARI, from Sanskrit devah., god, and deva-, divine.

7. ASMODEUS, from Avestan daëva-, spirit, demon.

III. Variant *dyë- (< *dye@-). DIAL, DIARY, DIET², DISMAL, DIURNAL, JOURNAL, JOURNE; ADJOURN, CIRCADIAN, MERIDIAN, POSTMERIDIAN, QUOTIDIAN, SOJOURN, from Latin diës, day.

IV. Variant *dei@-. PSYCHEDELIC, WOOLLY adelgid, from Greek dëlos (< *deyalos), clear.

(Pokorny 1. dei- 183.)

ed- To eat; original meaning “to bite.”

1 a. EAT, from Old English etan, to eat; b. ETCH, from Old High German ezzen, to feed on, eat; c. ORT, from Middle Dutch eten, to eat; d. i FRET¹, from Old English fretan, to devour; ii FRASS, from Old High German frezzan, to devour. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic compound *fra-etan, to eat up (*fra-, completely; see per¹ ). a–d all from Germanic *etan.

2. EDACIOUS, EDIBLE, ESCAROLE, ESCULENT, ESURIEN; COMEDO, COMESTIBLE, OBESE, from Latin edere, to eat.

3. PRANDIAL, from Latin compound prandium, lunch, probably from *präm-(e)d-yo-, “first meal,” *präm-, first; see per¹ ).

4. Suffixed form *ed-un-ä-. ANODYNE, PLEURODYNIA, from Greek odunë, pain (< “gnawing care”).

5. SAMOYED, from Russian -ed, eater.

(Pokorny ed- 287.) See also derivative dent- .

eg I. Nominative form of the personal pronoun of the first person singular. Oldest form *egì, becoming *eg in centum languages. (For oblique forms see me-¹.)

1. I, from Old English ic, I, from Germanic *ek.

2. Extended form *egö. EGO, EGOIST, EGOTISM, from Latin ego, I.

(Pokorny egì- 291.)

eghs Out. Oldest form *egìhs, becoming *eghs in centum languages. Derivatives include strange, and extreme.

1. Variant *eks. a. EX¹, EX-, from Latin ex, ex-, out of, away from; b. ECTO-, EX-, EXO-, EXOTERIC, EXOTI; ELECTUARY, LEKVAR, SYNECDOCHE, from Greek ex, ek, out of, from.

2. Suffixed (comparative) variant form *eks-tero-. a. ESTRANGE, EXTERIOR, EXTERNAL, EXTRA-, STRANGE, from Latin exter, outward (feminine ablative exterä, exträ, on the outside); b. further suffixed (superlative) form *eks-t(e)r-ëmo-. EXTREME, from Latin extrëmus, outermost (*-mo-, superlative suffix).

3. Suffixed form *eghs-ko-. ESCHATOLOGY, from Greek eskhatos, outermost, last.

4. Celtic *eks-, out (of), in compound *eks-dï-sedo- (see sed- ).

5. SAMIZDAT, from Russian iz, from, out of, from Balto-Slavic *iz.

(Pokorny egìhs 292.)

egwh- To drink. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *ëg^wh-r-yo-. a. INEBRIATE, RYEGRASS, from Latin ëbrius, drunk; b. Latin compound söbrius (see s(w)e- ). (Not in Pokorny; compare Hittite ekuzi, he drinks, and Greek nëphein, to be sober (< “not drink,” *ne-ëg^wh-).)

ei- To go. Oldest form *@₁ei-, zero-grade *@₁i-. Derivatives include ambition, perish, sudden, transit, ion, initial, janitor, and January.

1. Full-grade form *ei-. a. ADIT, AMBIENT, AMBITION, CIRCUIT, COITUS, COMITIA, EXIT, INTROIT, ISSUE, OBITUARY, PERISH, PRAETOR, PRETERIT, SEDITION, SUBITO, SUDDEN, TRANCE, TRANSIENT, TRANSIT, TRANSITIVE, from Latin ïre, to go; b. IO; ANION, CATION, DYSPROSIUM, from Greek ienai, to go; c. RAMAYANA, from Sanskrit eti, he goes (< Indo-Iranian *ai-ti), and abstract noun ayanam, a going, way.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *i-t-. a. Further suffixed form *i-t-yo-. COMMENCE, INITIAL, INITIATE, from Latin initium, entrance, beginning (in-, in; see en ); b. COUNT², COUNT; CONCOMITANT, CONSTABLE, VISCOUNT, from Latin comes (stem comit-), companion (< “one who goes with another”; com-, with; see kom ).

3. Suffixed form *i-ter. ERRANT, EYRE, ITINERANT, ITINERARY, from Latin iter, journey.

4. Extended form *yä- (< *@₁ya@₂-, colored from earlier *@₁ye@₂-) in suffixed forms *yä-no-, *yä-nu-. a. JANITOR, JANUARY, JANUS, from Latin iänus, archway, and Iänus, god of doors and of the beginning of a year; b. HINAYANA, MAHAYANA, from Sanskrit yänam, way (in Buddhism, “mode of knowledge,” “vehicle”).

(Pokorny 1. ei- 293.)

eis- In words denoting passion.

1. Suffixed form *eis-ä-. IRASCIBLE, IRATE, IRE, from Latin ïra, anger.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *is-(@)ro-, powerful, holy. HIERATIC, HIERO; HIERARCH, HIERARCHY, HIERODULE, HIEROGLYPHIC, HIEROPHANT, from Greek hieros, “filled with the divine,” holy. 3a. IRON, from Old English ïse(r)n, ïren, iron; b. GISARME, SPIEGELEISEN, from Old High German ïsarn, ïsan, iron. Both a and b from Germanic *ïsarno-, “holy metal” (possibly from Celtic).

4. Suffixed o-grade form *ois-tro-, madness. ESTRU; ESTROGEN, ESTRONE, from Greek oistros, gadfly, goad, anything causing madness.

5. Suffixed form *eis-mo. ASMODEUS, from Avestan aës^ma-, anger.

(Pokorny 1. eis- 299.)

ekwo- Horse. Probably to be segmented *ekw-o-, a suffixed form akin to the lengthened o-grade adjective öku- , swift. Oldest form *ekìwo-, becoming *ekwo- in centum languages.

1. EQUESTRIAN, EQUINE, EQUITANT, EQUITATIO; EQUISETUM, from Latin equus, horse.

2. EOHIPPUS, HIPPOCAMPUS, HIPPOCRENE, HIPPODROME, HIPPOGRIFF, HIPPOPOTAMUS, from Greek hippos, horse.

(Pokorny ekìu_o-s 301.)

el- Elbow, forearm.

1. Extended form *el-inä-, elbow. a. ELL², from Old English eln, forearm, cubit, from Germanic *elinö; b. ELBOW, from Old English elnboga, elbow, from Germanic compound *elino-bugön-, “bend of the forearm,” elbow (*bugön-, bend, bow; see bheug- ); c. ULNA, from Latin ulna, forearm.

2. Extended o-grade form *ol-enä-. UILLEANN pipe, from Old Irish uilenn, elbow.

3. Extended lengthened o-grade form *öl-enä-. OLECRANON, from Greek ölenë, elbow.

4. Extended basic form *el-in-. ARSHIN, from Old Persian aras^n-, ell, from Indo-Iranian *aratn(i)-, probably from a variant *el-etn- of *el-in-.

(Pokorny 8. el- 307.)

em- To take, distribute.

1. ADEMPTION, EXAMPLE, EXEMPLARY, EXEMPLIFY, EXEMPLUM, EXEMPT, IMPROMPTU, PEREMPTORY, PREEMPTION, PREMIUM, PROMPT, PRONTO, RANSOM, REDEEM, REDEMPTION, SAMPLE, VINTAGE, from Latin emere, to obtain, buy.

2. SUMPTUARY, SUMPTUOU; ASSUME, CONSUME, PRESUME, RESUME, SUBSUME, from Latin sümere (< *sus(e)m-), to take, obtain, buy (sus-, variant of sub-, up from under; see upo ).

(Pokorny em- 310.)

en In. Derivatives include inner, entrails, industry, and dysentery.

1 a. IN¹ (preposition), from Old English in, in; b. IN¹ (adverb), from Old English inn, into, inne, inside; c. INN, from Old English inn, habitation, inn; d. TSIMMES, from Old High German in, in; e. INNER, from Old English innera, farther in, inner, from Germanic (comparative) *inn(e)ra; f. i BEN, from Old English binnan, within; ii BILANDER, from Middle Dutch binnen, within (be, by; see ambhi + innan, in, within). Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *innan. a–f all from Germanic *in.

2. EN-¹, IN-², from Latin in, in-, in, into.

3. EN-²; ENKEPHALIN, PARENCHYMA, PARENTHESIS, from Greek en, en-.

4. Suffixed form *en-t(e)ro-. a. INTRO; INTRODUCE, INTROIT, INTROMIT, INTRORSE, INTROSPECT, from Latin intrö, inward, within; b. ENTER, INTRA; INTRADOS, from Latin inträ, inside, within; c. INTERIM, INTRINSIC, from Latin interim, meanwhile, with ablative suffix -im, and intrïnsecus, on the inside, from int(e)rim + secus, alongside (see sek^w-¹ ).

5. Suffixed form *en-ter. ENTRAILS, INTER-, INTERIOR, INTERN, INTERNAL, from Latin inter, inter-, between, among.

6. INTIMA, INTIMATE², from Latin (superlative) intimus, innermost (*-mo-, superlative suffix).

7. Extended form *en-do. a. INDUSTRY, from Latin industrius, diligent (Archaic Latin indostruus; *stru-, to construct; see ster-² ); b. INDIGENT, from Latin indigëre, to be in need (egëre, to be in need). Both a and b from indu-, within, from Archaic Latin endo; c. ENDO-, from Greek endon, endo-, within.

8. Suffixed form *en-tos. a. DEDANS, INTESTINE, INTINE, INTUSSUSCEPTION, from Latin intus, within, inside; b. ENTO-, from Greek entos, within.

9. Suffixed form *en-tero-. a. ENTERIC, ENTERO-, ENTERO; DYSENTERY, EXENTERATE, MESENTERY, from Greek enteron, intestine; b. ATOLL, perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit antara-, interior.

10. Extended form *ens. a. EPISODE, from Greek eis, into; b. suffixed form *ens-ö. ESOTERIC, ESOTROPIA, from Greek esö, within.

11. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *n,-dha. AND, from Old English and, and, from Germanic *anda, *unda.

(Pokorny 1. en 311.)

epi Also opi. Near, at, against.

1. OB-, from Latin ob, ob-, before, to, against.

2. EPI-, from Greek epi, on, over, at.

3. OPISTHOBRANCH, OPISTHOGNATHOUS, from Greek opisthen, behind, at the back.

4. Zero-grade form *pi, on, in Greek piezein (see sed- ).

5. OBLAST, from Russian oblast', oblast, from Old Church Slavonic ob, on.

6. Reduced prefixal form *op- in *op-wer-yo- (see wer-⁴ ).

7. DUOPSONY, OPSONIN, from Greek *ops, extra on the side, with, in noun opson, condiment, cooked food.

(Pokorny epi 323.)

er-1 To move, set in motion. Oldest form *@₁er-.

I. Basic form *er-.

1. Probably Germanic *ar-, *or-, *art(a), to be, exist. ARE¹, ART², from Old English eart and aron, second person singular and plural present of bëon, to be.

2. Perhaps Germanic suffixed form *er-n-os-ti-. EARNEST¹, from Old English eornoste, zealous, serious.

3. Uncertain o-grade suffixed form *ori-yo-. ORIENT, ORIGIN, ORIGINA; ABORT, from Latin orïrï, to arise, appear, be born.

4. Suffixed o-grade form *or-smä-. HORMONE, from Greek hormë, impulse, onrush.

II. Enlarged extended form *rei-s-.

1. RIS; ARISE, from Old English rïsan, from Germanic *rïsan;

2. Suffixed o-grade (causative) form *rois-ye-. a. REAR², from Old English raëran, to rear, raise, lift up; b. RAISE, from Old Norse reisa, to raise. Both a and b from Germanic *raizjan.

(Pokorny 3. er- 326; ergh- 339.)

er-2 Earth, ground. Extended form *ert-. a. EARTH, from Old English eorthe, earth; b. AARDVARK, AARDWOLF, from Middle Dutch aerde, eerde, earth. Both a and b from Germanic *erthö.

(Pokorny 4. er- 332.)

er@- To row (ramer). Oldest form *@₁er@₁-.

1. Variant form *rë- (contracted from *re@₁-, from earlier *@₁re@₁-). a. ROW², from Old English röwan, to row, from Germanic *rö-; b. suffixed form *rö-tro-. RUDDER, RUS, RUSSIAN, RUSSKY, from Old English röther and Old Norse rödhr, steering oar, both from Germanic *röthra, rudder; c. suffixed form *rë-smo-. BIREME, REMEX, TRIREME, from Latin rëmus, oar.

2. Oldest variant form *@₁re@₁- becoming *erë- in Greek. TRIERARCH, from Greek triërës, trireme.

(Pokorny 1. er@- 338.)

ers- To be in motion.

1. Variant form *rës-. RACE², from Old Norse räs, rushing, from Germanic *rës-.

2. Suffixed form *ers-ä-. ERR, ERRATIC, ERRATUM, ERRONEOUS, ERRO; ABERRATION, from Latin erräre, to wander.

3. Possible zero-grade form *r,s-i-. RISHI, from Sanskrit r.s.ih., poet, seer.

(Pokorny 2. ere-s- 336.)

es- To be. Oldest form *@₁es-, zero-grade *@₁s-. Derivatives include yes, soothe, sin¹, essence, absent, and proud.

1. Athematic first person singular form *es-mi. AM¹, from Old English eam, eom, am, from Germanic *izm(i).

2. Athematic third person singular form *es-ti. IS, from Old English is, is, from Germanic *ist(i).

3. Optative stem *sï-. YES, from Old English gëse, yes, from sïe, may it be (so) (gëa, yea; see i- ), from Germanic *sijai-.

4. Suffixed zero-grade (participial) form *@₁s-ont-, becoming *sont-, being, existing, hence real, true. a. SOOTH, SOOTHE, from Old English söth, true, from Germanic *santhaz; b. suffixed (collective) zero-grade form *sn,t-yä-, “that which is.” SIN¹, from Old English synn, sin, from Germanic *sun(d)jö, sin (< “it is true,” “the sin is real”); c. SUTTE; BODHISATTVA, SATYAGRAHA, from Sanskrit sat-, sant-, existing, true, virtuous.

5. Basic form *es-. ENTITY, ESSENC; ABESSIVE, ABSENT, ADESSIVE, ESSIVE, IMPROVE, INESSIVE, INTEREST, OSSIA, PRESENT¹, PRESENT², PROUD, QUINTESSENCE, REPRESENT, STOVER, from Latin esse, to be.

6. Basic form *es-. -ont, ONTO; -biont, HOMOIOUSIAN, PAROUSIA, SCHIZONT, from Greek einai (present participle ont-, being), to be (in pareinai, to be present).

7. Suffixed form *es-ti-. SWASTIKA, from Sanskrit svasti, well-being (su-, good; see (e)su- ).

(Pokorny es- 340.) See also extension (e)su- .

(e)su- Good. Oldest form *@₁(e)su-. Originally suffixed form of es- .

1. EU-, from Greek eu-, well, combining form of eus, good. 2a. SWASTIKA, from Sanskrit svasti, well-being, good luck (-asti, being; see es- ); b. NAINSOOK, from Sanskrit sukha-, running easily (said of a chariot), pleasant (“having good axle-holes”; kham, axle-hole). Both a and b from Sanskrit su-, good.

(Pokorny esu-s 342.)

eu- To dress.

1. ENDUE, INDUMENT, from Latin induere, to don (ind-, variant of in-, in, on; see en ).

2. EXUVIAE, from Latin exuere, to doff (ex-, off; see eghs ).

3. REDUVIID, from Latin reduvia, fragment (red-, back, in reverse; see re-).

(Pokorny 2. eu- 346.) See also extension wes-² .

eu@- To leave, abandon, give out, whence nominal derivatives meaning abandoned, lacking, empty. Oldest form *@₁eu@₂-, zero-grade *@₁u@₂-, with variant form *@₁we@₂-, colored and contracted to *wä-.

1. Suffixed form *w@-no-. a. WAN; WANTON, from Old English wanian, to lessen (from Germanic *wanën), and wan-, without; b. WANT, from Old Norse vanta, to lack, from North Germanic *wanatön.

2. Suffixed form *wä-no-. VAIN, VANITY, VAUN; EVANESCE, VANISH, from Latin vänus, empty.

3. Extended form *wak-. VACANT, VACATE, VACATION, VACUITY, VACUUM, VOI; AVOID, DEVOID, EVACUATE, from Latin vacäre (variant vocäre), to be empty.

4. Extended and suffixed form *wäs-to-. WAST; DEVASTATE, from Latin västus, empty, waste.

(Pokorny 1. eu- 345.)

eu@-dh-r, Udder (mamelle, pis). Related to wë-r- .

1. Suffixed zero-grade form *üdh-r,. UDDER, from Old English üder, udder, from Germanic *üdr-.

2. Suffixed o-grade form *oudh-r,. EXUBERANT, EXUBERATE, from Latin adjective über, fertile, derived from über, “breast.”

(Pokorny ëudh- 347.)

gal- To call, shout.

1. CALL, from Old Norse kalla, to call, from Germanic expressive form *kall-.

2. CLATTER, from Old English *clatrian, to clatter, from Germanic *klat-.

3. Expressive form *gall-. GALLINACEOUS, GALLINULE, from Latin gallus, cock (< “the calling bird”; but probably also associated with Gallus, Gallic, as if to mean “the bird of Gaul,” the cock being archaeologically attested as an important symbol in the iconography of Roman and pre-Roman Gaul).

4. Suffixed form *gal-so-. GLASNOST, from Old Church Slavonic glasù, voice.

5. Reduplicated form *gal-gal-. GLAGOLITIC, from Old Church Slavonic glagolù, word.

(Pokorny 2. gal- 350.)

gäu- To rejoice; also to have religious fear or awe. Oldest form *ge@₂u-, colored to *ga@₂u-, contracted to *gau- (before consonants) and *gäw- (before vowels).

1. Suffixed extended form *gäw-idh-ë-. GAUD, GAUDY¹, GAUDY², JO; ENJOY, REJOICE, from Latin gaudëre, to rejoice.

2. Form (with nasal infix) *g@-n-u-. GANOID, from Greek ganusthai, to rejoice.

(Pokorny gäu- 353.)

gel- Cold; to freeze. Derivatives include chill, jelly, and glacier.

1. CHILL, from Old English c(i)ele, chill, from Germanic *kaliz, coldness.

2. COLD, from Old English ceald, cold, from Germanic *kaldaz, cold. 3a. COOL, from Old English cöl, cold, cool; b. KEEL³, from Old English cëlan, to cool, from Germanic *köljan, to cool. Both a and b from Germanic *köl-, cool.

4. Suffixed form *gel-ä-. GELATIN, GELATION, JELL; CONGEAL, from Latin geläre, to freeze.

5. Suffixed form *gel-u-. GELID, from Latin gelü, frost, cold.

6. Probably suffixed zero-grade form *gl,-k-. GLACé, GLACIAL, GLACIATE, GLACIER, GLACI; VERGLAS, from Latin glaciës, ice.

(Pokorny 3. gel(@)- 365.)

gembh- Tooth, nail. Oldest form *gìembh-, becoming *gembh- in centum languages. Derivatives include comb, unkempt, and gem.

1. Suffixed o-grade form *gombh-o-. a. i COMB, KAME, from Old English comb, camb, comb; ii CAM, from Dutch kam, cog, comb; iii UNKEMPT, from Old English cemban, to comb, from Germanic denominative *kambjan, to comb. (i)–(iii) all from Germanic *kambaz, comb; b. GOMPHOSIS, from Greek gomphos, tooth, peg, bolt.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *gm,bh-ön-. OAKUM, from Old English ä-cumba, part of flax separated in hackling, oakum (“stuff combed off”; ä-, away, off).

3. Perhaps Germanic *kimb-. CHIME², from Old English cim-, cimb-, rim (only in compounds),

4. Possibly suffixed form *gembh-mä-. GEM, GEMMA, GEMMATE, GEMMULE, from Latin gemma, bud, hence gem.

(Pokorny gìembh- 369.)

gem@- To marry. Oldest form *gìem@₁-, becoming *gem@₁- in centum languages. Suffixed zero-grade form *gm,@-o-. GAMETE, GAMO-, -gamous, -gamy, from Greek gamos, marriage.

(Pokorny gìem(e)- 369.)

gen@- Also gen-. To give birth, beget; with derivatives referring to aspects and results of procreation and to familial and tribal groups. Oldest form *gìen@₁-, becoming *gen@₁- in centum languages. Derivatives include kin, king, jaunty, genius, pregnant, gingerly, and nature.

I. Basic form *gen@-.

1. Suffixed form *gen@-es-. a. GENDER, GENERAL, GENERATE, GENERATION, GENERIC, GENEROUS, GENRE, GENU; CONGENER, DEGENERATE, ENGENDER, MISCEGENATION, from Latin genus, race, kind; b. GEN; ALLOGENEIC, GENEALOGY, GENOCIDE, GENOTYPE, HETEROGENEOUS, SYNGENEIC, from Greek genos and geneä, race, family; c. -gen, -gen; EPIGENE, from Greek suffix -genës, “-born.”

2. Suffixed form *gen(@)-yo-. a. GENIAL¹, GENIU; CONGENIAL, from Latin genius, procreative divinity, inborn tutelary spirit, innate quality; b. ENGINE, INGENIOUS, from Latin ingenium, inborn character (in-, in; see en ).

3. Suffixed form *gen@-ä-. INDIGEN, INDIGENOUS, from Latin indigena, born in (a place), indigenous (indu-, within; see en ).

4. Suffixed form *gen@-wo-. GENUINE, INGENUOUS, from Latin ingenuus, born in (a place), native, natural, freeborn (in-, in; see en ).

5. Suffixed form *gen(@)-men-. GERM, GERMAN², GERMANE, GERMINAL, GERMINATE, from dissimilated Latin germen, shoot, bud, embryo, germ.

II. O-grade form *gon@-, reduced to *gon- in suffixed form *gon-o-.

1. GONAD, GONO-, -gony; ARCHEGONIUM, EPIGONE, HORMOGONIUM, from Greek gonos, child, procreation, seed.

2. HARIJAN, from Sanskrit janah., offspring, child, person.

III. Zero-grade form *gn,@-.

1. Suffixed form *gn,@-yo-. a. KI; KINDRED, from Old English cyn(n), race, family, kin; b. KING, from Old English cyning, king, from Germanic *kuningaz, king. Both a and b from Germanic *kunjam, family.

2. Suffixed form *gn,@-t-. a. KIND², from Old English cynd, gecynd(e), origin, birth, race, family, kind, from Germanic *kundjaz, family, race; b. KIND¹, from Old English gecynde, natural, native, fitting (ge-, collective prefix; see kom ), from Germanic *kundiz, natural, native; c. suffixed form *gn,@-ti-. i GENS, GENTEEL, GENTILE, GENTLE, GENTRY, JAUNT; GENDARME, from Latin gëns (stem genti-), race, clan; ii GENESIS, -genesis, from Greek genesis, birth, beginning; d. KINDERGARTEN, KRISS Kringle, WUNDERKIND, from Old High German kind, child, from Germanic secondary full-grade variant *kentham; e. suffixed form *gn,@-to-. JATAKA, from Sanskrit jäta-, born (verbal adjective of janate, he is born).

3. Reduplicated form *gi-gn(@)-. GENITAL, GENITIVE, GENITOR, GENITURE, GENT¹, GINGERL; CONGENITAL, PRIMOGENITOR, PRIMOGENITURE, PROGENITOR, PROGENY, from Latin gignere (past participle genitus), to beget.

4. Reduced form *gn- in suffixed form *-gn-o-. BENIGN, MALIGN, from Latin benignus, good-natured, kindly (bene, well; see deu-² ), and malignus, evil-natured, malevolent (male, ill; see mel-³ ).

5. Zero-grade form *gn,@- becoming *gnä-. PREGNANT¹; IMPREGNATE, from Latin praegnäs, pregnant (prae-, before; see per¹ ).

6. Suffixed form *gn,@-sko- becoming *gnä-sko-. NAIVE, NASCENT, NATAL, NATION, NATIVE, NATURE, Née, NOë; ADNATE, AGNATE, COGNATE, CONNATE, ENATE, INNATE, NEONATE, PUISNE, PUNY, RENAISSANCE, from Latin gnäscï, näscï (past participle gnätus, nätus), to be born.

7. Reduced form *gn,- in Sanskrit compound kr.mi-ja- (see k^wr,mi- ).

(Pokorny 1. gìen- 373.)

genu-1 Knee; also angle. Oldest form *gìenu-, becoming *genu- in centum languages.

1. Variant form *gneu-. a. KNEE, from Old English cnëo, knee, from Germanic *knewam; b. KNEEL, from Old English cnëowlian, to kneel, from Germanic *knewljan.

2. Basic form *genu-. GENICULATE, GENUFLECT, from Latin genü, knee.

3. O-grade form *gonu. POLYGONUM, PYCNOGONID, from Greek gonu, knee.

4. Suffixed variant form *gönw-y@-. -gon, GONIO; AMBLYGONITE, DIAGONAL, GONIOMETER, ORTHOGONAL, from Greek göniä, angle, corner.

(Pokorny 1. gìenu- 380.)

genu-2 Jawbone, chin. Oldest form *gìenu-, becoming *genu- in centum languages.

1. Form *genw-. CHIN, from Old English cin(n), chin, from Germanic *kinnuz.

2. Basic form *genu-. GENIAL², from Greek genus, jaw, chin.

3. Suffixed variant form *gn@-dho-. GNATHAL, GNATHIC, -gnathou; AGNATHAN, CHAETOGNATH, from Greek gnathos, jaw.

4. Variant form *g(h)enu-. HANUMAN, from Sanskrit hanu, jaw.

(Pokorny 2. gìenu- 381.)

ger- To gather. Oldest form *@₂ger-.

1. Extended form *grem-. CRAM, from Old English crammian, to stuff, cram, from Germanic *kramm-.

2. Reduplicated form *gre-g-. GREGARIOU; AGGREGATE, CONGREGATE, EGREGIOUS, SEGREGATE, from Latin grex (stem greg-), herd, flock.

3. Basic form *@ger-, with suffixed o-grade form *@gor-ä-. AGORA¹, AGORAPHOBIA, ALLEGORY, CATEGORY, PANEGYRIC, from Greek ageirein, to assemble, and aguris, agorä, marketplace.

(Pokorny 1. ger- 382.)

gerbh- To scratch. Derivatives include carve, crawl¹, and program.

1. CARVE, from Old English ceorfan, to cut, from Germanic *kerban.

2. KERF, from Old English cyrf, a cutting (off), from zero-grade Germanic form *kurbiz.

3. Variant form *grebh-. a. CRAB¹, from Old English crabba, a crab, from Germanic *krab(b)-; b. CRAYFISH, from Old High German kerbiz, edible crustacean, from Germanic *krabiz-; c. perhaps Germanic *krab-. CRAWL¹, from Old Norse krafla, to crawl.

4. Zero-grade form *gr,bh-. a. GLAMOUR, GRAFFITO, GRAFT¹, GRAM¹, -gram, GRAMMAR, -graph, -grapher, GRAPHIC, -graph; AGRAPHA, AGRAPHIA, ANAGRAM, DIAGRAM, EPIGRAM, EPIGRAPH, GRAPHITE, ICONOGRAPHY, PARAGRAPH, PARALLELOGRAM, PROGRAM, PSEUDEPIGRAPHA, TETRAGRAMMATON, TOPOGRAPHY, from Greek graphein, to scratch, draw, write, gramma (< *gr,bh-mn,), a picture, written letter, piece of writing, and grammë, a line; b. LANDGRAVE, MARGRAVE, PALSGRAVE, from Middle Dutch gräve and Middle Low German grave, count, from West Germanic *grafa, a designation of rank, possibly borrowed from Greek grapheus, scribe.

(Pokorny gerebh- 392.)

ger@-1 To grow old. Oldest form *gìer@₂-, becoming *ger@₂- in centum languages.

1. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *gër@-s-. AGERATUM, GERIATRICS, from Greek gëras, old age.

2. Suffixed form *ger@-ont-. GERONTO-, from Greek gerön (stem geront-), old man.

(Pokorny gìer- 390.)

ger@-2 To cry hoarsely; also the name of the crane. Oldest form *ger@₂-. Derivatives include crack, cranberry, and pedigree.

I. Words meaning “to cry hoarsely”; also words denoting the crow.

1 a. CROW¹, from Old English cräwe, a crow; b. CROW², from Old English cräwan, to crow; c. CRACK, from Old English cracian, to resound; d. CRACKNEL, from Middle Dutch kräken, to crack; e. CRAKE, from Old Norse kräka, a crow; f. CROON, from Middle Dutch krönen, to groan, lament. a–f all from Germanic *krë-.

2. Possibly from this root (but more likely imitative) is Germanic *kur(r)-. CUR, from Middle English curre, cur, akin to Old Norse kurra, to growl.

II. Words denoting a crane.

1 a. CRANE, from Old English cran, crane; b. CRANBERRY, from Middle Low German kran, crane. Both a and b from Germanic *kran-, crane.

2. Extended form *grü-. GRU; PEDIGREE, from Latin grüs, crane.

3. Suffixed variant form *grä-k-. GRACKLE, from Latin gräculus, jackdaw.

4. Suffixed extended form *ger@-no-. GERANIUM, from Greek geranos, crane.

(Pokorny 2. ger- 383.)

geus- To taste, choose. Oldest form *gìeus-, becoming *geus- in centum languages.

1 a. CHOOSE, from Old English cëosan, ceösan, to choose, from Germanic *keusan; b. CHOICE, from a Germanic source akin to Gothic kausjan, to test, taste, from Germanic causative *kausjan.

2. Zero-grade form *gus-. VALKYRIE, from Old Norse Valkyrja, “chooser of the slain,” Valkyrie (valr, the slain; see wel@- ), from Germanic *kuz-.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *gus-tu-. GUST², GUST; RAGOUT, from Latin gustus, taste.

4. Suffixed zero-grade form *gus-to-, whence further suffixed (frequentative) form *gus-t-ä-. GUSTATIO; DEGUST, DISGUST, from Latin gustäre, to taste.

(Pokorny gìeus- 399.)

ghabh- Also ghebh-. To give or receive. Derivatives include give, able, malady, prohibit, duty, and endeavor.

1. Form *ghebh-. a. GIVE, from Old English giefan, to give, and Old Norse gefa, to give; b. FORGIVE, from Old English forgi(e)fan, to give, give up, leave off (anger), remit, forgive, from Germanic compound *far-geban, to give away (*far-, away; see per¹ ). Both a and b from Germanic *geban.

2. Suffixed form *ghebh-ti-, something given (or received). GIFT, from Old Norse gipt, gift, a gift, from Germanic *giftiz.

3. O-grade form *ghobh-. GAVEL², from Old English gafol, tribute, tax, debt, from Germanic *gab-ulam, something paid (or received).

4. Form *ghabh-ë-. a. ABLE, BINNACLE, HABILE, HABIT, HABITABLE, HABITANT, HABITA; AVOIRDUPOIS, COHABIT, EXHIBIT, INHABIT, INHIBIT, MALADY, PREBEND, PROHIBIT, PROVENDER, from Latin habëre, to hold, possess, have, handle (> habitäre, to dwell); b. DEBENTURE, DEBIT, DEBT, DEVOIR, DUE, DUT; ENDEAVOR, from Latin dëbëre, to owe (dë-, away from; see de- ).

(Pokorny ghabh- 407.) Compare kap- .

ghans- Goose. Oldest form *gìhans-, becoming *ghans- in centum languages.

1 a. GOOSE¹; GOSHAWK, from Old English gös (nominative plural gës), goose; b. GOSLING, from Old Norse gäs, goose; c. GUNSEL, from Old High German gans, goose; d. GONZO, from Spanish ganso, goose, from a Germanic source akin to Old High German gans, goose. a–d all from Germanic *gans- (nominative plural *gansiz).

2. GANDER, from Old English ganra, gandra, gander, from Germanic *gan(d)rön-.

3. GANNET, from Old English ganot, gannet, from Germanic *ganötön-.

4. Suffixed form *ghans-er-. ANSERIN; MERGANSER, from Latin änser (< *hanser), goose.

5. Basic form *ghans-. CHENOPOD, from Greek khën, goose.

sanscrit : hamsa

(Pokorny gìhan-s- 412.)

canard : LAT anas, anati; GK nhssa; nhtta (attique)

ghë- To release, let go; (in the middle voice) to be released, go. Oldest form *gìhe@₁-, contracted to *gìhë- in satem languages and *ghë- in centum languages. Derivatives include heir and gait.

1. G; AGO, FOREGO¹, FORGO, from Old English gän, to go, from Germanic variant form *gaian.

2. Suffixed form *ghë-ro-. HEIR, HEREDITAMENT, HEREDITY, HERITAG; INHERIT, from Latin hërës, heir (? < “orphan” < “bereft”).

3. Possibly suffixed o-grade form *ghö-ro-, “empty space.” a. -chor; ANCHORITE, CHOROGRAPHY, from Greek khöros, place, country, particular spot; b. CHORIPETALOUS, from Greek khöris, khöri, apart, separate.

4. Possible suffixed zero-grade form *gh@-t(w)ä-. a. GAIT, GATE², from Old Norse gata, path, street; b. GANTLET¹, GAUNTLET², from Old Swedish gata, lane. Both a and b from Germanic *gatwön-, a going.

5. Suffixed zero-grade form *gh@-no-. HINAYANA, from Sanskrit hïna-, inferior, verbal adjective of jahäti, he leaves, lets go (< reduplicated *ghe-ghë-ti, *ghe-ghe@-ti).

(Pokorny 1. gìhë- 418.)

ghebh-el- Head.

1. GABLE, from Old Norse gafl, gable, from Germanic *gablaz, top of a pitched roof.

2. Form *kephal-, dissimilated from *khephal-. CEPHALIC, CEPHALO-, -cephalou; ENCEPHALO-, ENKEPHALIN, HYDROCEPHALUS, PACHYCEPHALOSAUR, from Greek kephalë, head.

(Pokorny ghebh-el- 423.)

ghedh- To unite, join, fit.

1. Lengthened o-grade form *ghödh-. GOOD, from Old English göd, good, from Germanic *gödaz, “fitting, suitable.”

2. TOGETHER, from Old English tögædere, together (tö, to; see de- ), from Germanic *gadurï, “in a body.”

3. GATHER, from Old English gad(e)rian, to gather, from Germanic *gadurön, “to come or bring together.”

(Pokorny ghedh- 423.)

ghei- Theoretical base of *ghyem-, *ghiem-, winter. Oldest forms *gìhei-, *gìhyem-, *gìhiem-, becoming *ghei-, *ghyem-, *ghiem- in centum languages.

1. Form *ghiem-. HIEMAL, from Latin hiems, winter.

2. Suffixed variant form *gheim-ri-no-. HIBERNACULUM, HIBERNATE, from Latin hïbernus, pertaining to winter.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghim-r,-y@, “female animal one year (winter) old.” CHIMERA, from Greek khimaira, she-goat.

(Pokorny 2. gìhei- 425.)

ghel-1 To call.

1 a. YELL, from Old English gellan, giellan, to sound, shout; b. YELP, from Old English gielpan, to boast, exult; c. NIGHTINGALE, from Old English galan, to sing. a–c all from Germanic *gel-, *gal-.

2. Reduplicated form *ghi-ghl-. CICHLID, from Greek kikhlë, thrush, later also the name for a kind of wrasse (a sea fish that has bright colors and jagged waving fins, reminiscent of the plumage of a bird).

3. CELANDINE, from Greek khelidwön, khelidön, the swallow (hirondelle).

(Pokorny ghel- 428.)

ghel-2 To shine; with derivatives referring to colors, bright materials, gold (probably “yellow metal”), and bile or gall. Oldest form *gìhel-, becoming *ghel- in centum languages. Derivatives include gold, arsenic, melancholy, Hare Krishna, gleam, glimpse, and glide.

I. Words denoting colors.

1. Suffixed form *ghel-wo-. YELLOW, from Old English geolu, yellow, from Germanic *gelwaz.

2. Suffixed variant form *ghlö-ro-. CHLORO; CHLORITE¹, from Greek khlöros, green, greenish yellow.

3. Suffixed variant form *ghlo-wo-. CHLOASMA, from Greek khloos (< *khlo-wo-s), greenish color.

4. O-grade form *ghol-. PODZOL, from Russian zola, ashes (from their color).

5. Suffixed form *ghel-i-. HARE Krishna, HARIJAN, from Sanskrit hari-, tawny yellow.

6. Possibly suffixed zero-grade form *ghl,-wo- in Latin fulvus, tawny (with dialectal f- as in fel, gall): GRISEOFULVIN.

II. Words denoting gold.

1. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghl,-to-. a. GOLD, from Old English gold, gold; b. GILD¹, from Old English gyldan, to gild, from Germanic denominative verb *gulthjan; c. GUILDER, GULDEN, from Middle Dutch gulden, golden; d. GOWAN, from Middle English gollan, yellow flower, possibly from a source akin to Old Norse gullinn, golden. a–d all from Germanic *gultham, gold.

2. Suffixed o-grade form *ghol-to-. ZLOTY, from Polish zl¬oto, gold.

3. Suffixed full-grade form *ghel-no-. ARSENIC, from Syriac zarnïkä, orpiment, from Middle Iranian *zarnik-, from Old Iranian *zarna-, golden.

III. Words denoting bile.

1. Suffixed o-grade form *ghol-no-. GALL¹, from Old English gealla, gall, from Germanic *gallön-, bile.

2. Suffixed o-grade form *ghol-ä-. CHOLE-, CHOLER, CHOLER; ACHOLIA, MELANCHOLY, from Greek kholë, bile.

3. Suffixed full-grade form *ghel-n-. FELON², from Latin fel, bile.

IV. A range of Germanic words (where no preforms are given, the words are late creations).

1. GLEAM, from Old English glaëm, bright light, gleam, from Germanic *glaimiz.

2. GLIMPSE, from Middle English glimsen, to glimpse, from a source akin to Middle High German glimsen, to gleam.

3. GLINT, from Middle English glent, a glint, and glenten, to shine, from a source akin to Swedish dialectal glinta, to shine.

4. GLIMMER, from Middle English glimeren, to glimmer, from a source akin to Swedish glimra, glimmer.

5. GLITTER, from Old Norse glitra, to shine.

6. GLITZ, from Old High German glïzan, to sparkle.

7. GLISTEN, from Old English glisnian, to shine.

8. GLISTER, from Middle Dutch glinsteren or Middle Low German glisteren, to shine.

9. GLASS, GLAZE, GLAZIER, from Old English glæs, glass, from Germanic *glasam, glass.

10. GLARE¹, from Middle English glaren, to glitter, stare, from a source akin to Middle Low German glaren, to glisten, from Germanic *glaz-.

11. GLOSS¹, from a source perhaps akin to Icelandic glossi, a spark.

12. GLANCE², from Old High German glanz, bright.

13. GLEG, from Old Norse glöggr, clear-sighted.

14. GLAD¹, from Old English glæd, shining, joyful, from Germanic *gladaz.

15. GLE; GLEEMAN, from Old English glëo, sport, merriment, from Germanic *gleujam. 16a. GLEED, from Old English glëd, ember; b. GLOGG, from Old Norse glodh, ember. Both a and b from Germanic *glö-di-. 17a. GLOW, from Old English glöwan, to glow; b. GLOWER, from Middle English gloren, to gleam, stare, probably from a source akin to Norwegian dialectal glora, to gleam, stare; c. GLOAT, from a source perhaps akin to Old Norse glotta, to smile (scornfully). a–c all from Germanic *glö-.

18. GLOAMING, from Old English glöm, twilight, from Germanic *glö-m-.

19. Possibly distantly related to this root is Germanic *glïdan, to glide. a. GLIDE, from Old English glïdan, to slip, glide; b. GLISSADE, from Old French glier, to glide; c. GLITCH, from Old High German glïtan, to glide; d. GLEDE, from Old English glida, kite (< “gliding, hovering bird”), from derivative Germanic *glidön-.

20. GLIB, from a source possibly akin to Middle Low German glibberich, slippery.

(Pokorny 1. gìhel- 429.)

ghend- Also ghed-. To seize, take. Derivatives include get, guess, prison, comprehend, surprise, and prey.

1 a. GET, from Old Norse geta, to get; b. BEGET, from Old English beg(i)etan, to get, beget, from Germanic compound *bigetan, to acquire (*bi-, intensive prefix; see ambhi ); c. FORGET, from Old English forg(i)etan, to forget, from Germanic compound *fer-getan, “to lose one's hold,” forget (*fer-, prefix denoting rejection; see per¹ ). a–c all from Germanic *getan.

2. GUESS, from Middle English gessen, to guess, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Swedish gissa, to guess, from Germanic *getisön, “to try to get,” aim at.

3. Basic form *ghend-. PREHENSILE, PREHENSION, PRISON, PRIZE², PRIZE³, PRY²; APPREHEND, APPRENTICE, APPRISE, COMPREHEND, COMPRISE, EMPRISE, ENTERPRISE, ENTREPRENEUR, IMPRESARIO, MISPRISION¹, PREGNABLE, PREGNANT¹, REPREHEND, REPRIEVE, REPRISAL, REPRISE, SURPRISE, from Latin prehendere, prëndere, to get hold of, seize, grasp (pre-, prae-, before; see per¹ ).

4. Form *ghed-. PREDATORY, PREY, SPRE; DEPREDATE, OSPREY, from Latin praeda, booty (< *prai-heda, “something seized before”; prai-, prae-, before; see per¹ ).

(Pokorny ghend- 437.)

gher-1 To grasp, enclose; with derivatives meaning “enclosure.” Oldest form *gìher-, becoming *gher- in centum languages. Derivatives include orchard, kindergarten, courteous, choir, and choral.

1. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghr,-dh-. a. GIRD¹, GIRT¹, from Old English gyrdan, to gird, from Germanic *gurdjan; b. GIRDLE, from Old English gyrdel, girdle; c. GIRTH, from Old Norse gjördh, girdle, girth.

2. Suffixed o-grade form *ghor-to- or (in Germanic) *ghor-dho-, an enclosure. a. i YARD²; ORCHARD, from Old English geard, enclosure, garden, yard; ii GART; ASGARD, from Old Norse gardhr, enclosure, garden, yard; iii KINDERGARTEN, from Old High German garto, garden; iv GARDEN, JARDINIère, from Old North French gart, garden; v HANGAR, from Old French hangard, shelter, possibly from Germanic *haimgardaz (*haimaz, home; see tkei- ); vi Germanic compound *midja-gardaz (see medhyo- ). (i)–(vi) all from Germanic *gardaz; b. HORTICULTURE, ORTOLAN, from Latin hortus, garden.

3. Prefixed and suffixed zero-grade form *ko(m)-ghr,-ti- (*ko(m)-, collective prefix, “together”; see kom ). COHORT, CORTEGE, COURT, COURTEOUS, COURTESAN, COURTESY, COURTIER, CURTILAGE, CURTSY, from Latin cohors (stem cohort-), enclosed yard, company of soldiers, multitude.

4. Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *ghor-o-. CAROL, CHOIR, CHORAL, CHORALE, CHORIC, CHORISTER, CHORUS, HOR; CHORAGUS, TERPSICHORE, from Greek khoros, dancing ground (? perhaps originally a special enclosure for dancing), dance, dramatic chorus.

(Pokorny 4. gìher- 442, gìherdh- 444.)

gher-2 To like, want. Oldest form *gìher-, becoming *gher- in centum languages.

1. Suffixed form *gher-n-. YEARN, from Old English giernan, gyrnan, to strive, desire, yearn, from Germanic *gernjan.

2. Possibly extended form *ghrë-. a. GREEDY, from Old English graëdig, hungry, covetous, greedy, from Germanic *grëdiga-, hungry, formed from *grëduz, hunger; b. CATACHRESIS, CHRESARD, CHRESTOMATHY, from Greek khrësthai, to lack, want, use, from khrë, it is necessary.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghr,-to-. HORTATIV; EXHORT, from Latin hortärï, to urge on, encourage (< “to cause to strive or desire”).

4. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghr,-i-. CHARISM; EUCHARIST, from Greek kharis, grace, favor.

5. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghr,-yo-. CHERVIL, from Greek khairein, to rejoice, delight in.

(Pokorny 1. gìher- 440.)

gher@- Gut, entrail. Oldest form *gìher@₂-, becoming *gher@₂- in centum languages.

1. Suffixed form *gher@-no-. YARN, from Old English gearn, yarn, from Germanic *garnö, string.

2. Suffixed form *gher@-n-. HERNIA, from Latin hernia, “protruded viscus,” rupture, hernia.

3. Suffixed o-grade form *ghor@-d-. CHORD², CORD, CORDO; HARPSICHORD, HEXACHORD, TETRACHORD, from Greek khordë, gut, string.

4. O-grade form *ghor@-. CHORION, from Greek khorion, intestinal membrane, afterbirth.

5. Possible suffixed zero-grade form *ghr,@-u-. HARUSPEX, from Latin haruspex, “he who inspects entrails,” diviner (-spex, “he who sees”; see spek- ), but perhaps borrowed from Etruscan.

(Pokorny 5. gìher- 443.)

ghes- Hand. Oldest form *gìhes-, becoming *ghes- in centum languages.

1. Suffixed form *ghes-ör, stem *ghes-(e)r-. CHIRO; CHIRURGEON, ENCHIRIDION, SURGEON, SURGERY, from Greek kheir, hand.

2. Suffixed form *ghes-to-. PRESS², PREST; IMPREST, from Latin praestö, at hand, perhaps from prefixed form *prai-ghes-to- (*prai-, before; see per¹ ).

(Pokorny 1. gìhesor- 447.)

gheslo- Seen by some as a base for words meaning “thousand.” Oldest form *gìheslo-, becoming *gheslo- in centum languages.

1. Suffixed form *ghesl-yo-. CHILIAD, KILO-, from Greek khïlioi, thousand.

2. MIL¹, MILE, MILLENARY, MILLESIMAL, MILLI-, MILLIARY, MILLIME, MILLIO; MILFOIL, MILLEFLEUR, MILLENNIUM, MILLEPORE, MILLIPEDE, PER mil, from Latin mïlle, thousand, which has been analyzed as *smï-, “one” + a form *ghslï-, but is of obscure origin.

(Pokorny gìhéslo- 446.)

gheu- To pour, pour a libation. Oldest form *gìheu-, becoming *gheu- in centum languages. Derivatives include gut, funnel, fusion, and refund¹.

I. Extended form *gheud-.

1. Zero-grade form *ghud-. GUT, from Old English guttas, intestines, from Germanic *gut-.

2. Nasalized zero-grade form *ghu-n-d-. FOISON, FONDANT, FONDUE, FONT², FOUND², FUNNEL, FUSE², FUSILE, FUSIO; AFFUSION, CIRCUMFUSE, CONFOUND, CONFUSE, DIFFUSE, EFFUSE, INFUSE, PERFUSE, PROFUSE, REFUND, REFUSE¹, REFUSE², SUFFUSE, TRANSFUSE, from Latin fundere, to melt, pour out.

II. Extended form *gheus-.

1 a. GUST¹, from Old Norse gustr, a cold blast of wind, from Germanic suffixed form *gustiz; b. GUSH, from Middle English gushen, to gush, perhaps akin to Icelandic gusa, to gush. Both a and b from Germanic zero-grade form *gus-.

2. GEYSER, from Old Norse geysa, to gush, from Germanic suffixed o-grade form *gausjan. 3a. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghus-mo-. CHYM; ECCHYMOSIS, from Greek khümos, juice; b. suffixed zero-grade form *ghus-lo-. CHYLE, from Greek khülos, juice.

III. Suffixed form *gheu-ti-. FUTILE, from Latin fütilis, “(of a vessel) easily emptied, leaky,” hence untrustworthy, useless.

IV. Basic form *gheu-. CHOANOCYTE, PARENCHYMA, from Greek khein, to pour, with o-grade noun khoanë, funnel.

(Pokorny gìheu- 447.)

gheu(@)- To call, invoke. Oldest form *gìheu(@)-, becoming *gheu(@)- in centum languages. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghu-to-, “the invoked,” god. a. GOD, from Old English god, god; b. GIDDY, from Old English gydig, gidig, possessed, insane, from Germanic *gud-iga-, possessed by a god; c. Götterdämmerung, from Old High German got, god. a–c all from Germanic *gudam, god.

(Pokorny gìhau- 413.)

ghos-ti- Stranger, guest, host; properly “someone with whom one has reciprocal duties of hospitality.”

1. Basic form *ghos-ti-. a. i GUEST, from Old Norse gestr, guest; ii Gastarbeiter, from Old High German gast, guest. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *gastiz; b. HOST², HOSTILE, from Latin hostis, enemy (< “stranger”).

2. Compound *ghos-pot-, *ghos-po(d)-, “guest-master,” one who symbolizes the relationship of reciprocal obligation (*pot-, master; see poti- ). HOSPICE, HOSPITABLE, HOSPITAL, HOSPITALITY, HOST¹, HOSTAGE, HOSTEL, HOSTLER, from Latin hospes (stem hospit-), host, guest, stranger.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghs-en-wo-. XENIA, XENO-, XENO; AXENIC, EUXENITE, PYROXENE, from Greek xenos, guest, host, stranger.

(Pokorny ghosti-s 453.)

ghrë- To grow, become green. Contracted from *ghre@₁-.

1. O-grade form *ghrö-. GROW, from Old English gröwan, to grow, from Germanic *grö(w)an.

2. Suffixed o-grade form *ghrö-n-yo-. GREEN, from Old English grëne, green, from Germanic *grönjaz, green.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghr@-so-. GRASS, GRAZE¹, from Old English græs, grass, from Germanic *grasam, grass.

(Pokorny (ghrë-) 454.)

ghrebh-1 To seize, reach.

1. Zero-grade form *ghr,bh-. SATYAGRAHA, from Sanskrit gr.bhn.äti, gr.hn.äti, he seizes. 2a. GRASP, from Middle English graspen, to grasp; b. GRAB¹, from Middle Dutch or Middle Low German grabben, to seize. Both a and b from parallel (imitative) Germanic creations with base *grab-, *grap-.

latin rapio, prendre

(Pokorny 1. ghrebh- 455.)

ghrebh-2 To dig, bury, scratch.

1. O-grade form *ghrobh-. a. i GRAVE³, ENGRAVE, from Old English grafan, to dig, engrave, scratch, carve; ii GRABEN, from Old High German graban, to dig; iii GRAVLAX, from Swedish grava, to bury; iv GRAVURE, from Old French graver, to engrave. (i)–(iv) all from Germanic *graban; b. GRAVE¹, from Old English græf, trench, grave, from Germanic *grabam.

2. GRUB, from Old English *grybban, to dig, from Germanic *grub(b)jan (with secondary ablaut).

3. GROOVE, from Middle Dutch groeve, ditch, from Germanic *gröbö.

(Pokorny 2. ghrebh- 455.)

ghredh- To walk, go. Suffixed zero-grade form *ghr,dh-yo-. a. GRESSORIA; AGGRESS, CONGRESS, DEGRESSION, DIGRESS, EGRESS, INGREDIENT, INGRESS, INTROGRESSION, PINNIGRADE, PLANTIGRADE, PROGRESS, REGRESS, RETROGRADE, RETROGRESS, TARDIGRADE, TRANSGRESS, from Latin gradï (past participle gressus), to walk, go; b. GRADE, GRADUAL, GRADUATE, GRE; CENTIGRADE, DEGRADE, DEGREE, from Latin gradus (< deverbative *grad-u-), step, stage, degree, rank.

(Pokorny ghredh- 456.)

ghrëi- To rub. Oldest form *gìhre@₁i-, with variant (metathesized) form *gìhrei@₁-, whence zero-grade *gìhri@₁-, contracted to *gìhrï- (becoming *ghrï- in centum languages).

1. GRISLY, from Old English grislïc, terrifying, from Germanic *gris-, to frighten (< “to grate on the mind”).

2. GRIME, from Middle English grime, grime, from a source akin to Middle Dutch grïme, grime, from Germanic *grïm-, smear.

3. Extended form *ghrïs-. CHRISM, CHRIST, CHRISTEN, CHRISTIA; CHRISTMAS, CREAM, KRISS Kringle, from Greek khrïein, to anoint.

(Pokorny ghrëi- 457.)

ghrendh- To grind.

1. GRIND, from Old English grindan, to grind, from Germanic *grindan.

2. GRIST, from Old English grïst, the action of grinding, from Germanic *grinst-, a grinding.

3. FRAISE, FRENULUM, FRENU; REFRAIN¹, from Latin frendere, to grind.

4. Sometimes but improbably regarded as from this root (in variant form *ghrend-) is Greek khondros, granule, groats, hence cartilage: CHONDRO; HYPOCHONDRIA, MITOCHONDRION.

(Pokorny ghren- 459.)

ghwer- Wild beast. Oldest form *gìhwer-, becoming *ghwer- in centum languages.

1. Suffixed form *ghwer-o-. FERAL, FERINE, FIERCE, from Latin ferus, wild.

2. Compound *ghwero-@k^w-, “of wild aspect” (*-@k^w-, “-looking”; see ok^w- ). FEROCIOUS, from Latin feröx (stem feröc-), fierce.

3. Lengthened-grade form *ghwër-. TREACL; BALUCHITHERE, CHALICOTHERE, DINOTHERE, EUTHERIAN, INDRICOTHERE, MEGATHERE, THEROPOD, from Greek thër, wild beast.

(Pokorny gìhu_êr- 493.)

ghwïbh- Shame, also pudenda. Expressive root, found only in Tocharian (in the literal meaning) and Germanic.

1. WIF; HUSSY, from Old English wïf, woman, from Germanic *wïbam, woman (with semantic weakening from the original meaning; for the semantics, compare the histories of pudendum and cunt).

2. WOMAN, from Old English compound wïf-man(n), “woman-person, wife person,” female (as opposed to wæpen-man(n), “weapon-person,” male, with clear sexual overtones). (Not in Pokorny; compare Tocharian B kwïpe and Tocharian A kip, female pudenda.)

gleubh- To tear apart, cleave. Derivatives include clever and hieroglyphic.

I. Basic form *gleubh-.

1. CLEAVE¹, from Old English clëofan, to split, cleave, from Germanic *kleuban.

2. Probably o-grade form *gloubh-. CLEVER, from Middle English cliver, nimble, skillful, perhaps akin to East Frisian klüfer, klifer, skillful, and Old Norse kleyfr, easy to split, from Germanic *klaubri-.

II. Zero-grade form *glubh-.

1 a. CLOVE², from Old English clufu, clove (of garlic); b. KLOOF, from Middle Dutch clove, a cleft; c. CLEVIS, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse klofi, a cleft. a–c all from Germanic *klub-, a splitting.

2. CLEFT, from Old English geclyft, fissure, from Germanic *klufti- (*klub-ti-).

3. GLYPH, GLYPTI; ANAGLYPH, HIEROGLYPHIC, from Greek gluphein, to carve.

4. Suffixed zero-grade form *glubh-mä-. GLUME, from Latin glüma, husk of grain.

(Pokorny gleubh- 401.)

gnö- To know. Oldest form *gìne@₃-, colored to *gìno@₃-, contracted to *gìnö- (becoming *gnö- in centum languages). Derivatives include know, cunning, uncouth, ignore, noble, diagnosis, and narrate.

1. Variant form *gnë-, contracted from *gnë@-. KNO; KNOWLEDGE, ACKNOWLEDGE, from Old English cnäwan, to know, from Germanic *knë(w)-.

2. Zero-grade form *gn,@-. a. CAN¹, CON², CUNNING, from Old English cunnan, to know, know how to, be able to, from Germanic *kunnan (Old English first and third singular can from Germanic *kann from o-grade *gon@-); b. KEN, KENNING, from Old English cennan, to declare, and Old Norse kenna, to know, name (in a formal poetic metaphor), from Germanic causative verb *kannjan, to make known; c. COUT; UNCOUTH, from Old English cüth, known, well-known, usual, excellent, familiar, from Germanic *kunthaz; d. KITH and kin, from Old English cÿth(the), cÿththu, knowledge, acquaintance, friendship, kinfolk, from Germanic *kunthithö.

3. Suffixed form *gnö-sko-. NOTICE, NOTIFY, NOTION, NOTORIOU; ACQUAINT, COGNITION, COGNIZANCE, CONNOISSEUR, INCOGNITO, QUAINT, RECOGNIZE, RECONNAISSANCE, RECONNOITER, from Latin (g)nöscere, cognöscere, to get to know, get acquainted with.

4. Suffixed form *gnö-ro-. IGNORANT, IGNORE, from Latin ignöräre, not to know, to disregard (i- for in-, not; see ne ).

5. Suffixed form *gnö-dhli-. NOBLE, from Latin nöbilis, knowable, known, famous, noble.

6. Reduplicated and suffixed form *gi-gnö-sko-. GNOME², GNOMON, GNOSIS, GNOSTI; AGNOSIA, DIAGNOSIS, PATHOGNOMONIC, PHYSIOGNOMY, PROGNOSIS, from Greek gignöskein, to know, think, judge (verbal adjective gnötos, known), with gnösis (< *gnö-ti-), knowledge, inquiry, and gnömön, judge, interpreter.

7. Suffixed zero-grade form *gn,@-ro-. NARRATE, from Latin narräre (< *gnarräre), to tell, relate, from gnärus, knowing, expert.

8. Suffixed zero-grade form *gn,@-ti-. ZEND-Avesta, from Avestan zainti-, knowledge (remade from *zäti-).

9. Traditionally but improbably referred here are: a. NOT; ANNOTATE, CONNOTE, PROTHONOTARY, from Latin nota, a mark, note, sign, cipher, shorthand character; b. NORM, NORMA, NORMA; ABNORMAL, ENORMOUS, from Latin norma, carpenter's square, rule, pattern, precept, possibly from an Etruscan borrowing of Greek gnömön, carpenter's square, rule.

(Pokorny 2. gìen- 376.)

gr,@-no- Grain. Oldest form *gìr,@-no-, becoming *gr,@-no- in centum languages.

1 a. CORN¹, from Old English corn, grain; b. KERNEL, from Old English derivative noun cyrnel, seed, pip; c. EINKORN, from Old High German korn, grain. a–c all from Germanic *kornam.

2. GARNER, GARNET, GRAIN, GRAM², GRANADILLA, GRANARY, GRANGE, GRANI-, GRANITA, GRANITE, GRANULE, GRENADE, GRENADIN; FILIGREE, GROSGRAIN, POMEGRANATE, from Latin gränum, grain. (In Pokorny gìer- 390.)

gwä- Also g^wem-. To go, come. Oldest form *g^we@₂-, colored to *g^wa@₂-, contracted to *g^wä-. Derivatives include welcome, adventure, souvenir, acrobat, and diabetes.

1 a. COME, from Old English cuman, to come; b. WELCOME, from Old English wilcuma, a welcome guest, and wilcume, the greeting of welcome, from Germanic compound *wil-kumön-, a desirable guest (*wil-, desirable; see wel-¹ ), from *kumön-, he who comes, a guest; c. BECOME, from Old English becuman, to become, from Germanic compound *bi-kuman, to arrive, come to be (*bi-, intensive prefix; see ambhi ). a–c all from Germanic *kuman.

2. Suffixed form *g^w(e)m-yo-. VENIRE, VENU; ADVENT, ADVENTITIOUS, ADVENTURE, AVENUE, CIRCUMVENT, CONTRAVENE, CONVENE, CONVENIENT, CONVENT, CONVENTICLE, CONVENTION, COVEN, COVENANT, EVENT, EVENTUAL, INTERVENE, INVENT, INVENTORY, MISADVENTURE, PARVENU, PREVENIENT, PREVENT, PROVENANCE, PROVENIENCE, REVENANT, REVENUE, SOUVENIR, SUBVENTION, SUPERVENE, from Latin venïre, to come.
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VADUM, gué ; VADERE, marcher, aller, s'avancer ; VAGARI, errer
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3. Suffixed zero-grade form *g^wm,-yo-. BASE¹, BASI; ABASIA, ACROBAT, ADIABATIC, AMPHISBAENA, ANABAENA, ANABASIS, BATOPHOBIA, DIABASE, DIABETES, HYPERBATON, KATABATIC, STEREOBATE, STYLOBATE, from Greek bainein, to go, walk, step, with basis (< *g^w@-ti-, suffixed zero-grade form of *gwä-), a stepping, tread, base, -batos (< *g^w@-to-), going, and -batës (< *g^w@-tä-), agential suffix, “one that goes or treads, one that is based.”

4. Suffixed zero-grade form *g^w(@)-u- in compound *pres-g^wu- (see per¹ ).

5. Basic form *g^wä-. BEMA, from Greek bëma, step, seat, raised platform.

6. Reduplicated form *g^we-g^wä-. JUGGERNAUT, from Sanskrit jagat, moving, the world, originally present participle of *jagäti (remade as jigäti), he goes.

(Pokorny gu_ä- 463.)

gwei- To live. Also g^wei@- (oldest form *g^wei@₃-, with metathesized variant *g^wye@₃-, colored to *g^wyo@₃-, contracted to *g^wyö-). Derivatives include quick, vivid, vitamin, whiskey, amphibious, microbe, and hygiene.

I. Suffixed zero-grade form *g^wi-wo-, *g^wï-wo- (< *g^wi@-wo-), living.

1 a. QUICK, QUICKSILVER, from Old English cwic, cwicu, living, alive; b. COUCH grass, QUITCH grass, from Old English cwice, couch grass (so named from its rapid growth). Both a and b from Germanic *kwi(k)waz. 2a. i VIVIFY, VIVIPAROUS, from Latin vïvus, living, alive; ii VIPER, WEEVER, WYVERN, from Latin vïpera, viper, contracted from *vïvipera, “bearing live young” (from the belief that it hatches its eggs inside its body), from feminine of earlier *vïvo-paros (-paros, bearing; see per@-¹ ); b. VIAND, VICTUAL, VIVA, VIVACIOUS, VIVI; CONVIVIAL, REVIVE, SURVIVE, from Latin denominative vïvere, to live.