ko- Stem of demonstrative pronoun meaning “this.” Oldest form *kìo-, becoming *ko- in centum languages. Derivatives include he¹, et cetera, and behind.

I. Variant form *ki-.

1 a. HE¹, from Old English hë, he; b. HIM, from Old English him, him (dative of hë); c. HIS, from Old English his, his (genitive of hë); d. HER, from Old English hire, her (dative and genitive of heo, she); e. IT, from Old English hit, it (neuter of hë); f. HERE, from Old English hër, here; g. HENCE, from Old English heonane, heonon, from here. a–g all from Germanic *hi-.

2. Suffixed form *ki-tro-. HITHER, from Old English hider, hither, from Germanic *hi-thra-.

3. Suffixed form *ki-s. CIS-, from Latin cis, on this side of.

II. Variant form *ke-.

1. Preposed in *ke-etero- (*e-tero-, a second time, again; see i- ). ET cetera, from Latin cëterus (neuter plural cëtera), the other part, that which remains.

2. Postposed in Latin -ce (see nu- ).

III.

1. BEHIND, HIND¹, from Old English behindan, in the rear, behind (bi, at; see ambhi ).

2. HINTERLAND, from Old High German hintar, behind.

3. HINDER¹, HINDRANCE, from Old English hindrian, to check, hinder, from Germanic derivative verb *hindrön, to keep back. 1–3 all from Germanic root *hind-, behind, attributed by some to this root (but more likely of obscure origin).

(Pokorny 1. ko- 609.)

kö- To sharpen, whet. Oldest form *kìe@₃-, colored to *kìo@₃-, contracted to *kìö- (becoming *kö- in centum languages).

1. Suffixed extended form *ko@i-no-. HONE¹, from Old English hän, stone, from Germanic *hainö.

2. Possibly Greek könos, cone, conical object (< “a sharp-pointed object”): CONE, CONI; CONIFER, CONODONT.

(Pokorny kìë(i)- 541.)

kob- To suit, fit, succeed. HAP, HAPPEN, HAPP; HAPLESS, MISHAP, from Old Norse happ, chance, good luck, from Germanic *hap-.

(Pokorny kob- 610.)

kom Beside, near, by, with. Derivatives include enough, handiwork, and country.

1. ENOUGH, GEMOT, HANDIWORK, WITANAGEMOT, YCLEPT, YEAN, from Old English ge-, with, also participial, collective, and intensive prefix, from Germanic *ga-, together, with (collective and intensive prefix and marker of the past participle).

2. CUM¹; COONCAN, from Latin cum, co-, with.

3. CO-, COM-, from Archaic Latin com, with (collective and intensive prefix).

4. British Celtic *kom-, collective prefix, in compound *kombrogos (see merg- ).

5. Suffixed form *kom-trä-. CON¹, CONTRA-, CONTRARY, COUNTER¹, COUNTER-, COUNTR; ENCOUNTER, from Latin conträ, against, opposite.

6. Suffixed form *kom-yo-. COENO; CENOBITE, EPICENE, KOINE, from Greek koinos, common, shared.

7. Reduced form *ko- in compounds (see gher-¹ , mei-¹ , smei- ).

(Pokorny kom 612.)

konk- To hang. Oldest form *kìonk-, becoming *konk- in centum languages.

1 a. HANG, from Old English hön, to hang; b. HANKER, from Dutch (dialectal) hankeren, to long for; c. HINGE, from Middle English henge, hinge, hinge, possibly related (ultimately from the base of Old English hangian, to hang). a–c all from Germanic *hanhan (transitive), hangën (intransitive), hang.

2. Suffixed form *konk-it-ä-. CUNCTATION, from Latin cünctärï, to delay.

(Pokorny kìenk- 566, kìonk- 614.)

koro- War; also war-band, host, army.

1. HERIOT, from Old English here, army.

2. ARRIère-ban, from Old French herban, a summoning to military service (ban, proclamation, summons; see bhä-² ). 3a. HARBOR, from Old English herebeorg, lodging; b. HARBINGER, from Old French herberge, lodging. Both a and b from Germanic compound *harja-bergaz, “army hill,” hill-fort, later shelter, lodging, army quarters (*bergaz, hill; see bhergh-² ).

4. HERALD, from Anglo-Norman herald, from Germanic compound *harja-waldaz, “army commander” (*wald-, rule, power; see wal- ).

5. HARNESS, from Old French harneis, harness, from Germanic compound *harja-nestam, “army provisions” (*nestam, food for a journey; see nes-¹ ).

6. HARRY, HURRY, from Old English hergian, to ravage, plunder, raid, from Germanic denominative *harjön.

7. HARANGUE, from Old Italian aringo, arringa, public square, from Germanic compound *harihring, assembly, “host-ring” (*hringaz, ring; see sker-² ). 1–7 all from Germanic *harjaz, army.

(Pokorny koro-s 615.)

kost- Bone. Probably related to ost- . COAST, COSTA, COSTARD, COSTREL, CUESTA, CUTLE; ACCOST, INTERCOSTAL, STERNOCOSTAL, from Latin costa, rib, side.

(Pokorny kost- 616.)

kous- To hear. Oldest form *@₂kous-.

1 a. HEAR, from Old English hïeran, to hear; b. HEARKEN, from Old English he(o)rcnian, to harken. Both a and b from Germanic *hauzjan;

2. Suffixed form *@kous-yo-. ACOUSTIC, from Greek akouein, to hear.

(Pokorny 1. keu- 587.)

krei- To sieve, discriminate, distinguish. Derivatives include garble, crime, certain, excrement, crisis, and hypocrisy.

1. Basic form with variant instrumental suffixes. a. Suffixed form *krei-tro-. RIDDLE¹, from Old English hridder, hriddel, sieve, from Germanic *hridra-; b. suffixed form *krei-dhro-. CRIBRIFORM, GARBLE, from Latin crïbrum, sieve.

2. Suffixed form *krei-men-. a. CRIME, CRIMINA; RECRIMINATE, from Latin crïmen, judgment, crime; b. DISCRIMINATE, from Latin discrïmen, distinction (dis-, apart).

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *kri-no-. CERTAI; ASCERTAIN, CONCERN, CONCERT, DECREE, DISCERN, DISCONCERT, EXCREMENT, EXCRETE, INCERTITUDE, RECREMENT, SECERN, SECRET, SECRETARY, from Latin cernere (past participle crëtus), to sift, separate, decide.

4. Suffixed zero-grade form *kri-n-yo-. CRISIS, CRITIC, CRITERIO; APOCRINE, DIACRITIC, ECCRINE, ENDOCRINE, EPICRITIC, EXOCRINE, HEMATOCRIT, HYPOCRISY, from Greek krïnein, to separate, decide, judge, and krïnesthai, to explain.

(Pokorny 4. sker-, Section II. 945.)

kreu@- Raw flesh. Oldest form *kreu@₂-.

1. Suffixed o-grade form *krow@-o-. RAW, from Old English hrëaw, raw, from Germanic *hrawaz.

2. Suffixed form *krew@-s-. CREATINE, CREODONT, CREOSOTE, PANCREAS, from Greek kreas, flesh.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *krü-do- (< *kru@-do-). a. CRUD; ECRU, RECRUDESCE, from Latin crüdus, bloody, raw; b. CRUEL, from Latin crüdëlis, cruel.

(Pokorny 1. A. kreu- 621.)

kreus- To begin to freeze, form a crust.

1. Suffixed zero-grade form *krus-to-. a. CROUTON, CRUST, CRUSTACEAN, CRUSTACEOUS, CRUSTOS; ENCRUST, KRISTALLNACHT, from Latin crüsta, crust (with obscure lengthening); b. CRYSTAL, CRYSTALLINE, CRYSTALLO-, from Greek krustallos, ice, crystal.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *krus-es-. CRYO-, from Greek kruos, icy cold, frost.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *krus-mo-. CRYMOTHERAPY, from Greek krümos, icy cold, frost.

(Pokorny 1. B. kreu- 621.)

ksun Preposition and preverb meaning “with.”

1. SYN-, from Greek sun, xun, together, with.

2. Basic form *su(n)-. a. SOVIET, from Old Russian compound sùve^tù, assembly; b. SPUTNIK, from Russian so-, s-, with, together. a and b from Old Russian sù(n)-, with, together. (In Pokorny 2. sem- 902.)

kwe And (enclitic). SESQUI-, UBIQUITY, from Latin -que, and.

(Pokorny 1. ku_e 635.)

kwei-1 To pay, atone, compensate. Suffixed o-grade form *k^woi-nä-. PAIN, PENAL, PENALTY, PINE², PUNIS; IMPUNITY, PENOLOGY, PUNITORY, REPINE, SUBPOENA, from Greek poinë, fine, penalty.

(Pokorny 1. ku_ei-(t-) 636.)

kwei-2 To pile up, build, make. O-grade form *k^woi-. a. CHEETAH, from Sanskrit käyah., body; b. suffixed form *k^woi-wo-, making, in denominative verb *k^woiw-eyo-. POEM, POESY, POET, POETIC, -poiesis, -poieti; EPOPEE, MYTHOPOEIC, ONOMATOPOEIA, PHARMACOPOEIA, from Greek poiein, to make, create.

(Pokorny 2. ku_ei- 637.)

kwei@- Also k^wye@-. To rest, be quiet. Oldest forms *k^wei@₁-, *k^wye@₁

Derivatives include while, coy, and requiem.

I. Suffixed zero-grade form *k^wï-lo- (< *k^wi@-lo-).

1 a. WHILE, from Old English hwïl, while; b. WHILOM, from Old English hwïlum, sometimes. Both a and b from Germanic *hwïlö.

2. Possibly Latin tranquillus, tranquil (träns, across, beyond; see ter@-² ): TRANQUIL.

II. Variant form *k^wyë- (< *k^wye@-).

1. Suffixed form *k^wyë-t-. REQUIEM, from Latin quiës, rest, quiet.

2. Suffixed form *k^wyë-ske-. COY, QUIET, QUI; ACQUIESCE, ACQUIT, QUITCLAIM, QUITE, QUITRENT, REQUIESCAT, from Latin quiëscere (past participle quiëtus), to rest.

(Pokorny ku_ei@- 638.)

kweit- Also kweid-. White; to shine. Oldest form *kìweit-, becoming *kweit- in centum languages.

1. Suffixed variant form *kweid-o-. a. WHIT; WHITSUNDAY, from Old English hwït, white; b. WITLOOF, from Middle Dutch wit, white; c. WHITING², from Middle Dutch wijting, whiting; d. i EDELWEISS, from Old High German hwïz, wïz, white; ii BISMUTH, from obsolete German Bismut, Wismut, perhaps obscurely related to Old High German wïz, white. a–d all from Germanic *hwïtaz.

2. Suffixed o-grade variant form *kwoid-yo-. WHEAT, from Old English hwaëte, wheat (from the fine white flour it yields), from Germanic *hwaitjaz.

(Pokorny 3. kìu_ei- 628.)

kwel-1 Also k^wel@-. To revolve, move around, sojourn, dwell. Derivatives include colony, cult, wheel, cyclone, pulley, and bucolic.

I. Basic form *k^wel-. COLONY, CULT, CULTIVATE, CULTURE, KULTU; INCULT, INQUILINE, SILVICOLOUS, from Latin colere, to till, cultivate, inhabit (< *k^wel-o-).

II. Suffixed form *k^wel-es-. TELIC, TELIUM, TELO-, TELO; ENTELECHY, TALISMAN, TELEOLOGY, TELEOST, TELEUTOSPORE, from Greek telos, “completion of a cycle,” consummation, perfection, end, result.

III. Suffixed reduplicated form *k^w(e)-k^wl-o-, circle.

1. WHEEL, from Old English hwëol, hweogol, wheel, from Germanic *hwewlaz.

2. CYCLE, CYCLO-, CYCLOID, CYCLONE, CYCLOSI; BICYCLE, ENCYCLICAL, EPICYCLE, from Greek kuklos, circle, wheel.

3. CHAKRA, CHUKKER, from Sanskrit cakram, circle, wheel.

4. Metathesized form *k^we-lk^w-o-. CHARKHA, from Old Persian *carka-.

IV. O-grade form *k^wol-.

1. Suffixed form *k^wol-so-, “that on which the head turns,” neck. a. i HAWSE, from Old Norse häls, neck, ship's bow; ii RINGHALS, from Middle Dutch hals, neck; iii HABERGEON, HAUBERK, from Old French hauberc, hauberk, from Germanic compound *h(w)als-berg-, “neck-protector,” gorget (*bergan, to protect; see bhergh-¹ ). (i)–(iii) all from Germanic *h(w)alsaz; b. COL, COLLAR, COLLET, CULLE; ACCOLADE, DECOLLATE¹, Décolleté, MACHICOLATE, MACHICOLATION, TORTICOLLIS, from Latin collum, neck.

2. Suffixed form *k^wol-ä-. -colou; PRATINCOLE, from Latin -cola and incola, inhabitant (in-, in; see en ).

3. Suffixed form *k^wol-o-. a. ANCILLARY, from Latin anculus, “he who bustles about,” servant (an-, short for ambi-, around, about; see ambhi ); b. POLE¹, PULLEY, from Greek polos, axis of a sphere; c. BUCOLIC, from Greek boukolos, cowherd, from -kolos, herdsman.

4. Suffixed form *k^wol-es- (probably a blend of o-grade *k^wol-o- and expected e-grade *k^wel-es-). CALASH, KOLACKY, from Slavic kolo, koles-, wheel.

5. Suffixed o-grade form *k^wol-eno- in Old Iranian compound *vahä-carana- (see wes-³ ).

6. Suffixed zero-grade variant form *k^wl,@-i-. PALIMPSEST, PALINDROME, PALINGENESIS, PALINODE, from Greek palin, again (< “revolving”).

(Pokorny 1. ku_el- 639.)

kwel-2 Far (in space and time).

1. Lengthened-grade form *k^wël-. TELE-, from Greek tële, far off.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *k^wl,-ai. PALEO-, from Greek palai, long ago.

(Pokorny 2. ku_el- 640.)

kwen- Holy. Oldest form *kìwen-, becoming *kwen- in centum languages. Suffixed zero-grade form *kwn,-s-lo-. HOUSEL, from Old English hüsl, hüsel, sacrifice, Eucharist, from Germanic *hunslam.

(Pokorny *kìu_en- 630.)

kwent(h)- To suffer.

1. Suffixed form *k^wenth-es-. NEPENTHE, from Greek penthos, grief.

2. Zero-grade form *k^wn,th-. PATHETIC, PATHO-, PATHOS, -path; APATHY, PATHOGNOMONIC, SYMPATHY, from Greek pathos, suffering, passion, emotion, feelings.

(Pokorny ku_enth- 641.)

kwer- To make.

1. PRAKRIT, PUGGREE, SANSKRIT, from Sanskrit karoti, he makes.

2. Suffixed form *k^wer-ör with dissimilated form *k^wel-ör. PELORIA, from Greek pelör, monster (perhaps “that which does harm”).

3. Suffixed form *k^wer-@s-. TERA-, TERATO-, from Greek teras, monster.

4. Suffixed form *k^wer-mn,. KARMA, from Sanskrit karma, act, deed.

(Pokorny 1. ku_er- 641.)

kwes- To pant, wheeze. Oldest form *kìwes-, becoming *kwes- in centum languages.

1. WHEEZE, from Old Norse hvæsa, to hiss, from Germanic *hwësjan.

2. QUARREL¹, QUERULOUS, from Latin querï, to complain.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *kus-ti-. CYST, CYSTO-, from Greek kustis, bladder, bag (< “bellows”).

(Pokorny kìu_es- 631.)

kwët- To shake. Contracted from *kwe@₁t-. Zero-grade form *kw@t-, becoming *kwat-. a. CASCARA, CASK, SCUTCH, SQUASH²; CONCUSS, DISCUSS, PERCUSS, RESCUE, SOUKOUS, SUCCUSSION, from Latin quatere (past participle quassus, in composition -cussus), to shake, strike; b. PASTA, PASTE¹, PASTEL, PASTICHE, PASTIS, PASTRY, Pâté, PATISSERIE, PATTY, from Greek passein, to sprinkle.

(Pokorny ku_ët- 632.)

kwetwer- Four. Derivatives include four, squad, quarantine, and farthing.

I. O-grade form *k^wetwor-.

1 a. FOUR, from Old English fëower, four; b. FORTY, from Old English fëowertig, forty; c. FOURTEE; FORTNIGHT, from Old English fëowertëne, fourteen (-tëne, ten; see dekm, ). a–c all from Germanic *fe(d)wor-, probably from *k^wetwor-.

2. QUATRAI; CATER-cornered, QUATTROCENTO, from Latin quattuor, four.

3. CZARDAS, from Old Iranian cathwärö, four.

II. Multiplicatives *k^weturs, *k^wetrus, and combining forms *k^wetur-, *k^wetru-.

1. CAHIER, CARILLON, CARNET, CASERN, QUATERNARY, QUATERNION, QUIRE¹, from Latin quater, four times.

2. CADRE, QUADRATE, QUADRILLE¹, QUARREL², QUARRY²; ESCADRILLE, SQUAD, SQUARE, TROCAR, from Latin quadrum, square.

3. QUADRI-, from Latin quadri-, four.

4. QUADRANT, from Latin quadräns, a fourth part.

5. QUARANTINE, from Latin quadrägintä, forty (-gintä, ten times; see dekm, ).

6. QUADRICENTENARY, from Latin quadri(n)gentï, four hundred.

7. Variant form *k^wet(w)r,-. a. TETRA-, from Greek tetra-, four; b. TESSER; DIATESSARON, from Greek tessares, tettares, four; c. TETRAD, from Greek tetras, group of four; d. zero-grade form *k^wt(w)r,-. TRAPEZIUM, from Greek tra-, four.

III. Ordinal adjective *k^wetur-to-.

1 a. FOURTH, from Old English fëortha, fëowertha, fourth; b. FIRKIN, from Middle Dutch veerde, fourth; c. FARTHING, from Old English fëorthing, fëorthung, fourth part of a penny; d. FILLER², from Old High German fiordo, fourth. a–d all from Germanic *fe(d)worthön-.

2. QUADRILLE², QUADROON, QUART, QUARTAN, QUARTER, QUARTO, from Latin quärtus, fourth, quarter.

(Pokorny ku_etu_er- 642.)

kwo- Also k^wi-. Stem of relative and interrogative pronouns. Derivatives include who, whether, either, quorum, quip, and quality.

1 a. WHO, WHOSE, WHOM, from Old English hwä, hwæs, hwaëm, who, whose, whom, from Germanic personal pronouns *hwas, *hwasa, *hwam; b. WHAT, from Old English hwæt, what, from Germanic pronoun *hwat; c. WHY, from Old English hwÿ, why, from Germanic adverb *hwï; d. WHICH, from Old English hwilc, hwelc, which, from Germanic relative pronoun *hwa-lïk- (*lïk-, body, form; see lïk-); e. HOW, from Old English hü, how, from Germanic adverb *hwö; f. i WHEN, from Old English hwenne, hwanne, when; ii WHENCE, from Old English hwanon, whence. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic adverb *hwan-; g. WHITHER, from Old English hwider, whither, from Germanic adverb *hwithrë; h. WHERE, from Old English hwaër, where, from Germanic adverb *hwar-. a–h all from Germanic *hwa-, *hwi-. 2a. WHETHE; NEITHER, from Old English hwæther, hwether, which of two, whether; b. EITHER, from Old English aëghwæther, aëther, either, from Germanic phrase *aiwo gihwatharaz, “ever each of two” (*aiwo, *aiwi, ever, and *gi- from *ga-, collective prefix; see aiw- and kom ). Both a and b from Germanic *hwatharaz.

3. QUA, QUIBBLE, QUORUM, from Latin quï, who.

4. HIDALGO, QUIDDITY, QUIDNUNC, QUI; KICKSHAW, from Latin quid, what, something.

5. QUASI, from Latin quasi, as if (< quam + sï, if; see swo- ), from quam, as, than, how.

6. QUODLIBET, from Latin quod, what.

7. Suffixed form *k^wo-ti. a. QUOTE, QUOTIDIAN, QUOTIEN; ALIQUOT, from Latin quot, how many; b. further suffixed form *k^wo-ty-o-. POSOLOGY, from Greek posos, how much.

8. QUONDAM, from Latin quom, when.

9. COONCAN, from Latin quem, whom.

10. QUANTITY, from Latin quantus, how great.

11. QUALIT; KICKSHAW, from Latin quälis, of what kind.

12. CUE², from Latin quandö, when (from *k^wäm + -dö, to, til; see de- ).

13. NEUTER, from Latin uter, either of two, ultimately from *k^wo-tero- (becoming -cuter in such compounds as necuter, neither, from which uter was abstracted out by false segmentation).

14. UBIQUITY, from Latin ubi, where, ultimately from locative case *k^wo-bhi (becoming -cubi in such compounds as alicubi, somewhere, from which ubi was abstracted out by false segmentation, perhaps under the influence of ibi, there).

15. CHEESE³, from Old Persian *cis^-ciy, something (< *k^wid-k^wid).

(Pokorny ku_o- 644.)

kwon- Dog. Oldest form *kìwon-, becoming *kwon- in centum languages.

1. CYNI; CYNOSURE, PROCYON, QUINSY, from Greek kuön, dog.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *kwn,-to-. a. HOUND, from Old English hund, dog; b. DACHSHUND, from Old High German hunt, dog; c. KEESHOND, from Middle Dutch hond, dog. a–c all from Germanic *hundaz.

3. Nominative form *kwö. CORGI, from Welsh ci, dog.

4. Variant *kan-i-. CANAILLE, CANARY, CANICULAR, CANINE, CHENILLE, KENNEL¹, from Latin canis, dog.

(Pokorny kìu_on- 632.)

kwrep- Body, form, appearance. Probably a verbal root meaning “to appear.”

1. Suffixed form *k^wrep-es-. MIDRIFF, from Old English hrif, belly from Germanic *hrefiz-.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *k^wr,p-es-. CORPORAL¹, CORPORAL³, CORPORATE, CORPOREAL, CORPOSANT, CORPS, CORPSE, CORPULENCE, CORPUS, CORPUSCLE, CORSAGE, CORSE, CORSE; LEPRECHAUN, from Latin corpus, body, substance.

(Pokorny 1. krep- 620.)

lüs- Louse. LOUSE, from Old English lüs, louse, from Germanic *lüs-.

(Pokorny lûs- 692.)

mä-1 Good; with derivatives meaning “occurring at a good moment, timely, seasonable, early.” Oldest form *me@₂-, colored to *ma@₂-, contracted to *mä-.

1. Suffixed form *mä-tu-. a. Further suffixed form *mä-tu-ro-. MATUR; IMMATURE, PREMATURE, from Latin mätürus, seasonable, ripe, mature; b. further suffixed form *mä-tu-to-. MATINEE, MATINS, MATUTINAL, from Latin Mätüta, name of the goddess of dawn.

2. Suffixed form *mä-ni-. a. MAñana, from Latin mäne, (in) the morning; b. MANES, from Latin mänis, mänus, good.

(Pokorny 2. mä- 693.)

mä-2 Mother. A linguistic near-universal found in many of the world's languages, often in reduplicated form.

1. MAMMA², MAMMAL, MAMMILLA, from Latin mamma, breast.

2. Probably from this root is Greek Maia, “good mother” (respectful form of address to old women), also nurse: MAIA, MAIEUTI; MAIASAUR.

3. MAMA, more recently formed in the same way.

(Pokorny 3. mä 694.)

mag- Also mak-. To knead, fashion, fit. Oldest forms *magì-, *makì-, becoming *mag-, *mak- in centum languages. Derivatives include make, mason, mingle, magma, and mass.

1 a. i MAKE, from Old English macian, to make; ii MASON, from Old French masson, mason; iii MAQUILLAGE, from Middle Dutch maken, to make. (i)–(iii) all from Germanic verb *makön, to fashion, fit; b. MATCH¹, from Old English gemæcca, mate, spouse, from Germanic compound noun *ga-mak-(j)ön-, “one who is fitted with (another)” (*ga-, with, together; see kom ). Both a and b from Germanic *mak-. 2a. MINGLE, from Old English mengan, to mix; b. AMONG, MONGREL, from Old English gemang, mixture, crowd (ge-, together; see kom ). Both a and b from Germanic nasalized form *mangjan, to knead together.

3. Suffixed form *mak-yo-. MAGMA, from Greek magma, unguent, from massein (aorist stem mag-), to knead.

4. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *mäg-ya-. MAS; AMASS, MAZAEDIUM, from Greek mäza, maza, a (kneaded) lump, barley cake.

5. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *mäk-ero-. MACERATE, from Latin mäceräre, to tenderize, to soften (food) by steeping.

(Pokorny magì- 696, 2. mäk- 698, men(@)k- 730.)

magh- To be able, have power. Derivatives include dismay, might¹, machine, and magic.

1 a. MAY¹, from Old English magan, to be able; b. DISMAY, from Old French esmaier, to frighten. Both a and b from Germanic *magan, to be able.

2. MIGHT¹, from Old English miht, power, from Germanic suffixed form *mah-ti-, power.

3. MAIN, from Old English mægen, power, from Germanic suffixed form *mag-inam, power.

4. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *mägh-anä-, “that which enables.” MACHINE, MECHANIC, MECHANISM, MECHANO-, from Greek (Attic) mëkhanë, (Doric) mäkhanä, device.

5. Possibly suffixed form *magh-u-. MAGIC, MAGUS, from Old Persian magus^, member of a priestly caste (< “mighty one”).

(Pokorny magh- 695.)

maghu- Young person of either sex. Suffixed form *magho-ti-. a. MAID, MAIDEN, from Old English mægden, virgin; b. MATJES herring, from Dutch maagd, maid. Both a and b from Germanic *magadi-, with diminutive *magadin-.

(Pokorny maghos 696.)

mäk- Long, thin. Oldest form *me@₂kì-, colored to *ma@₂kì-, contracted to *mäkì (becoming *mäk- in centum languages).

1. Zero-grade form *m@k- becoming *mak-. a. i MEAGER, from Latin macer, thin; ii MACRO-, MACRO; AMPHIMACER, from Greek makros, long, large. Both (i) and (ii) from suffixed form *mak-ro-; b. EMACIATE, from Latin maciäre, to make thin, from suffixed form *mak-ye-.

2. Suffixed full-grade form *mäk-es-. MECOPTERAN, PARAMECIUM, from Greek mëkos, length.

(Pokorny mäkì- 699.)

man-1 Also mon-. Man.

1. Extended forms *manu-, *manw-. a. MA; LEMAN, NORMAN¹, from Old English man(n) (plural menn), man; b. FUGLEMAN, LANDSMAN², from Old High German man, man; c. MANIKIN, MANNEQUIN, from Middle Dutch man, man; d. YEOMAN, from Old Frisian man, man; e. NORMAN¹, OMBUDSMAN, from Old Norse madhr, mannr, man; f. ALEMANNI, possibly from Germanic *Ala-manniz, tribal name (< “all men”: *ala-, all; see al-³ ). a–f all from Germanic *manna- (plural *manniz); g. MANU, from Sanskrit manuh., man, from Indo-Iranian *manu-.

2. MENSCH, from Old High German mennisco, human, from Germanic adjective *manniska-, human, from *manna- (see 1 ).

3. MUZHIK, from Russian muzh, man, male, from Slavic suffixed form *mon-gyo-.

(Pokorny manu-s 700.)

man-2 Hand. Derivatives include manacle, maneuver, and manure.

1 a. MANACLE, MANAGE, MANège, MANNER, MANUAL, MANUBRIUM, MANU; AMANUENSIS, MAINTAIN, MANEUVER, MANICOTTI, MANICURE, MANIFEST, MANSUETUDE, MANUFACTURE, MANUMIT, MANURE, MANUSCRIPT, MASTIFF, MORTMAIN, QUADRUMANOUS, from Latin manus, hand; b. MANIPLE, MANIPULATION, from Latin manipulus, handful (-pulus, perhaps -ful; see pel@-¹ ).

2. Suffixed form *man-ko-, maimed in the hand. MANQUé, from Latin mancus, maimed, defective.

3. EMANCIPATE, from Latin compound manceps, “he who takes by the hand,” purchaser (-ceps, agential suffix, “taker”; see kap- ).

4. MANDAMUS, MANDATE, MAUNDY Thursda; COMMAND, COMMANDO, COMMEND, COUNTERMAND, DEMAND, RECOMMEND, REMAND, from Latin compound mandäre, “to put into someone's hand,” entrust, order (-dere, to put; see dhë- ).

(Pokorny m@-r 740.)

marko- Horse. MARE¹, from Old English mere, miere, mare, from Germanic feminine *marhjön-.

(Pokorny marko- 700.)

mäter- Mother. Based ultimately on the baby-talk form mä-² , with the kinship term suffix *-ter-. Derivatives include mother¹, matrix, and matter.

1 a. MOTHER¹, from Old English mödor, mother; b. MOTHER², from Middle Dutch moeder, mother. Both a and b from Germanic *mödar-.

2. ALMA mater, MATER, MATERNAL, MATERNITY, MATRICULATE, MATRIX, MATRO; MADREPORE, MATRIMONY, from Latin mäter, mother.

3. METRO; METROPOLIS, from Greek mëtër, mother.

4. MATERIAL, MATTER, from Latin mäteriës, mäteria, tree trunk (< “matrix,” the tree's source of growth), hence hard timber used in carpentry, hence (by a calque on Greek hülë, wood, matter) substance, stuff, matter.

5. DEMETER, from Greek compound Dëmëtër, name of the goddess of produce, especially cereal crops (dë-, possibly meaning “earth”).

(Pokorny mätér- 700.)

me-1 Oblique form of the personal pronoun of the first person singular. For the nominative see eg .

1. ME, MYSELF, from Old English mê (dative and accusative), from Germanic *mê-.

2. Possessive adjective *mei-no-. a. MINE², MY, from Old English mïn, my; b. MYNHEER, from Middle Dutch mijn, my. Both a and b from Germanic *mïn-.

3. Possessive adjective *me-yo-. MADAME, MONSIEUR, from Latin meus, mine.

4. Genitive form *me-wo. MAVOURNEEN, from Old Irish mo, my.

(Pokorny 1. me- 702.)

me-2 In the middle of.

1. Suffixed form *me-dhi. MIDWIFE, from Old English mid, among, with, from Germanic *mid-.

2. Suffixed form *me-ta. META-, from Greek meta, between, with, beside, after.

(Pokorny 2. me- 702.) See also medhyo- .

më-1 Expressing certain qualities of mind. Contracted from *me@₁-.

1. Suffixed o-grade form *mö-to-. a. MOOD¹, from Old English möd, mind, disposition; b. GEMütlich, GEMütlichkeit, from Old High German muot, mind, spirit. Both a and b from Germanic *möthaz.

2. Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *mö-s-. MORAL, MORALE, MORES, MOROSE, from Latin mös, wont, humor, manner, custom.

(Pokorny 5. më- 704.)

më-2 To measure. Contracted from *me@₁-. Derivatives include piecemeal, immense, meter¹, geometry, moon, and semester.

I. Basic form më-.

1. Suffixed form *më-lo-. MEAL²; PIECEMEAL, from Old English maël, “measure, mark, appointed time, time for eating, meal,” from Germanic *mëlaz.

2. Suffixed form *më-ti-. a. MEASURE, MENSURA; COMMENSURATE, DIMENSION, IMMENSE, from Latin mëtïrï, to measure; b. METIS, from Greek mëtis, wisdom, skill.

3. Possibly Greek metron, measure, rule, length, proportion, poetic meter (but referred by some to med- ): METER¹, METER², METER³, -meter, METRICAL, -metr; DIAMETER, GEOMETRY, ISOMETRIC, METROLOGY, METRONOME, SYMMETRY.

4. Reduplicated zero-grade form *mi-m@-. MAHOUT, MAUND, from Sanskrit mimïte, he measures.

II. Extended and suffixed forms *mën-, *mën-en-, *mën-öt-, *mën-s-, moon, month (an ancient and universal unit of time measured by the moon).

1. MOO; MONDAY, from Old English möna, moon, from Germanic *mënön-.

2. MONTH, from Old English mönath, month, from Germanic *mënöth-.

3. MENO; AMENORRHEA, CATAMENIA, DYSMENORRHEA, EMMENAGOGUE, MENARCHE, MENISCUS, MENOPAUSE, from Greek mën, mënë, month.

4. MENSES, MENSTRUAL, MENSTRUAT; BIMESTRIAL, SEMESTER, TRIMESTER, from Latin mënsis, month.

(Pokorny 3. më- 703, mënöt 731.)

më-3 Big. Contracted from *me@₁-.

1. Suffixed (comparative) form *më-is-. MORE, from Old English mära, greater, and märe (adverb), more, from Germanic *maizön-.

2. Suffixed (superlative) form *më-isto-. MOST, from Old English maëst, most, from Germanic *maista-.

3. Suffixed form *më-ro-, *më-ri-. Märchen, from Old High German märi, news, narration.

4. Suffixed o-grade form *mö-ro-. CLAYMORE, from Gaelic mör, big, great.

(Pokorny 4. më- 704.)

më-4 To cut down grass or grain with a sickle or scythe. Contracted from *me@₁-.

1. MOW², from Old English mäwan, to mow, from Germanic *më-.

2. Suffixed form *më-ti-. AFTERMATH, from Old English maëth, a mowing, a mown crop, from Germanic *mëdiz.

3. Suffixed form *më-twä-, a mown field. MEAD², MEADOW, from Old English maëd, meadow, from Germanic *mëdwö.

(Pokorny 2. më- 703.)

med- To take appropriate measures. Derivatives include medicine, modest, modern, commodity, and empty.

1 a. METE¹, from Old English metan, to measure (out), from Germanic *metan; b. MEET², from Old English gemaëte, “commensurate,” fit (ge-, with; see kom ), from Germanic derivative *maëtö, measure. 2a. MEDICAL, MEDICATE, MEDICINE, MEDIC; METHEGLIN, REMEDY, from Latin medërï, to look after, heal, cure; b. MEDITATE, from Latin meditärï, to think about, consider, reflect.

3. Suffixed form *med-es-. a. MODES; IMMODEST, from Latin modestus, “keeping to the appropriate measure,” moderate; b. MODERAT; IMMODERATE, from Latin moderärï, “to keep within measure,” to moderate, control. Both a and b from Latin *modes-, replacing *medes- by influence of modus (see 5 below).

4. MEDUSA, from Greek medein, to rule (feminine participle medousa < *med-ont-ya).

5. Suffixed o-grade form *mod-o-. MODAL, MODE, MODEL, MODERN, MODICUM, MODIFY, MODULATE, MODULE, MODULUS, MOLD¹, MOOD², MOULAG; ACCOMODATE, COMMODE, COMMODIOUS, COMMODITY, from Latin modus, measure, size, limit, manner, harmony, melody.

6. Suffixed o-grade form *mod-yo-. MODIOLUS, MUTCHKIN, from Latin modius, a measure of grain.

7. Possibly lengthened o-grade form *möd-. a. MOTE², MUST¹, from Old English mötan, to have occasion, to be permitted or obliged; b. EMPTY, from Old English aëmetta, rest, leisure, from Germanic compound *ë-möt-ja- (prefix *ë-, meaning uncertain, from Indo-European *ë, *ö, to). Both a and b from Germanic *möt-, ability, leisure.

(Pokorny 1. med- 705.)

medhu- Honey; also mead (hydromel).

1. MEAD¹, from Old English meodu, mead, from Germanic *medu.

2. AMETHYST, METHYLENE, from Greek methu, wine.

(Pokorny médhu- 707.)

medhyo- Middle. Derivatives include middle, medieval, and meridian.

1 a. MID¹, MIDS; AMID, from Old English midd(e), middle; b. MIDDLE, from Old English middel, middle, from West Germanic diminutive form *middila-; c. MIDGARD, from Old Norse Midhgardhr, Midgard, from Germanic compound *midja-gardaz, “middle zone,” name of the earth conceived as an intermediate zone lying between heaven and hell (*gardaz, enclosure, yard; see gher-¹ ). a–c all from Germanic *midja-.

2. MEAN³, MEDAL, MEDIAL, MEDIAN, MEDIASTINUM, MEDIATE, MEDIUM, MEZZALUNA, MEZZANINE, MEZZOTINT, MIZZEN, MOIETY, MULLIO; INTERMEDIATE, MEDIEVAL, MEDIOCRE, MEDITERRANEAN, MERIDIAN, MILIEU, from Latin medius, middle, half.

3. MESO-, from Greek mesos, middle.

(Pokorny medhi- 706.) See also me-² .

meg- Great. Oldest form *megì-, becoming *meg- in centum languages. Derivatives include much, magnate, mayor, maestro, and maharajah.

1 a. MICKLE, MUCH, from Old English micel, mycel, great; b. MICKLE, from Old Norse mikill. Both a and b from Germanic suffixed form *mik-ila-.

2. Suffixed form *mag-no-. MAGNATE, MAGNITUDE, MAGNU; MAGNANIMOUS, MAGNIFIC, MAGNIFICENT, MAGNIFICO, MAGNIFY, MAGNILOQUENT, from Latin magnus, great.

3. Suffixed (comparative) form *mag-yos-. a. MAJOR, MAJOR-domo, MAJORITY, MAJUSCULE, MAYOR, from Latin mäior, greater; b. MAESTOSO, MAJESTY, from Latin mäiestäs, greatness, authority; c. MAESTRO, MAGISTERIAL, MAGISTRAL, MAGISTRATE, MASTER, MISTER, MISTRAL, MISTRESS, from Latin magister, master, high official (< “he who is greater”).

4. Suffixed (superlative) form *mag-samo-. MAXIM, MAXIMUM, from Latin maximus, greatest.

5. Suffixed (feminine) form *mag-ya-, “she who is great.” MAY², MAY, from Latin Maia, name of a goddess.

6. Suffixed form *meg-@-(l-). MEGA-, MEGALO; ACROMEGALY, OMEGA, from Greek megas (stem megal-), great.

7. Suffixed (superlative) form meg-(@)-isto-. ALMAGEST, HERMES Trismegistus, from Greek megistos, greatest.

8. Variant form *megh- (< *meg-@-). MAHABHARATA, MAHARAJAH, MAHARANI, MAHARISHI, MAHATMA, MAHAYANA, MAHOUT, from Sanskrit mahä-, mahat-, great.

(Pokorny megì(h)- 708.)

mei-1 To change, go, move; with derivatives referring to the exchange of goods and services within a society as regulated by custom or law. Derivatives include mad, molt, mutate, mistake, communism, amoeba, and migrate.

1. MEATU; CONGé, IRREMEABLE, PERMEATE, from Latin meäre, to go, pass.

2. Suffixed o-grade form *moi-to-. a. MAD, from Old English *gemaëdan, to make insane or foolish, from Germanic *ga-maid-jan, denominative from *ga-maid-az, “changed (for the worse),” abnormal (*ga-, intensive prefix; see kom ); b. MEW¹, MOLT, MUTAT; COMMUTE, PERMUTE, REMUDA, TRANSMUTE, from Latin mütäre, to change; c. MUTUAL, from Latin mütuus, “done in exchange,” borrowed, reciprocal, mutual.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *mi-tä-. AZIMUTH, ZENITH, from Latin sëmita, sidetrack, side path (< “thing going off to the side”; së-, apart; see s(w)e- ).

4. Suffixed zero-grade form *mi-tro-. a. MITRA, from Sanskrit mitrah., friend, friendship; b. MITHRAS, from Avestan and Old Persian mithra-, contract. Both a and b from Indo-Iranian *mitra-, friend(ship), contract, god of the contract.

5. Suffixed extended zero-grade form *mit-to-. a. MIS-¹, from Old English mis-, mis-, and Old French mes- (from Frankish *miss-); b. AMISS, MISTAKE, from Old Norse mis(s), mis(s)-, miss, mis-; c. MISS¹, from Old English missan, to miss, from Germanic *missjan, to go wrong. a–c all from Germanic *missa-, “in a changed manner,” abnormally, wrongly.

6. Suffixed o-grade form *moi-n- in compound adjective *ko-moin-i-, “held in common” (*ko-, together; see kom ). a. MEAN², DEMEAN², from Old English gemaëne, common, public, general, from Germanic *gamainiz; b. COMMON, COMMUNE¹, COMMUNE², COMMUNICATE, COMMUNIS; EXCOMMUNICATE, INCOMMUNICADO, from Latin commünis, common, public, general.

7. Suffixed o-grade form *moi-n-es-. a. MUNICIPAL, MUNIFICENT, REMUNERATE, from Latin münus, “service performed for the community,” duty, work, “public spectacle paid for by a magistrate,” gift; b. IMMUNE, from Latin immünis, exempt from public service (in-, negative prefix; see ne ).

8. Extended form *(@)meig^w-. a. AMOEBA, from Greek ameibein, to change; b. MIGRAT; EMIGRATE, from Latin migräre, to change one's place of living.

(Pokorny 2. mei-, 3. mei- 710, mei-gu_- 713, 2. mei-t(h)- 715.)

mei-2 Small. Derivatives include menu, mince, minestrone, and minister.

1. MEIOSI; MIOCENE, from Greek meiön, less, lesser, from extended variant *meiu-.

2. Zero-grade compounded suffixed form *ne-mi-s (see ne ).

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *mi-nu-. a. MENU, MINCE, MINUEND, MINUET, MINUTE², MINUTIA, COMMINUTE, DIMINISH, from Latin minuere, to reduce, diminish; b. MINOR, MINU; MINUSCULE, from Latin minor (influenced by the comparative suffix -or), less, lesser, smaller; c. further suffixed (superlative) form *minu-mo-. MINIM, MINIMUM, from Latin minimus, least; d. MINESTRONE, MINISTER, MINISTRY, MYSTERY², from Latin minister, an inferior, servant (formed after magister, master; see meg- ); e. MENSHEVIK, from Russian men'she, less.

(Pokorny 5. mei- 711.)

meigh- To urinate. Oldest form *meigìh-, becoming *meigh- in centum languages.

1 a. MIST, from Old English mist, mist (brume)
b. MIZZLE¹, from Middle English misellen, to drizzle (bruiner) from a source perhaps akin to Dutch dialectal mieselen, to drizzle;
c. MISSEL thrush, MISTLETOE, from Old English mistel, mistletoe, from Germanic diminutive form *mihst-ila-, mistletoe (which is propagated through the droppings of the missel thrush).
a–c all from Germanic suffixed form *mih-stu-, urine, hence mist, fine rain.

2. Suffixed form *migh-tu-. MICTURATE, from Latin micturïre, to want to urinate (desiderative of meiere, to urinate).

(Pokorny meigìh- 713.)

meik- Also meig-. To mix. Oldest forms *meikì-, *meigì-, becoming *meik-, *meig- in centum languages.

1. Zero-grade variant form *mig-. AMPHIMIXIS, APOMIXIS, PANMIXIA, from Greek mignunai, to mix, and noun mixis (< *mig-ti-), a mingling.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *mik-sk-. MEDDLE, MEDLEY, Mélange, MELEE, MESCLUN, MESTIZO, MISCELLANEOUS, MISCIBLE, MIX, MIXTURE, MUSTAN; ADMIX, COMMIX, IMMIX, MISCEGENATION, PELL-mell, PROMISCUOUS, from Latin miscëre (past participle mixtus), to mix.

3. Possibly Germanic *maisk- (phonological details unclear). MASH, from Old English *mäsc, *mäcs, mäx-, mashed malt.

(Pokorny mei-kì- 714.)

mei-no- Opinion, intention.

1. MOAN, from Old English *män, opinion, complaint, from Germanic *main-.

2. MEAN¹; BEMOAN, from Old English maënan, to signify, tell, complain of, moan, from Germanic *mainjan.

(Pokorny mei-no- 714.)

mel-1 Soft; with derivatives referring to soft or softened materials of various kinds.

I. Extended form *meld-.

1. MELT, from Old English meltan, to melt, from Germanic *meltan.

2. Possibly Germanic *miltja-. MILT, from Old English milte, spleen, and Middle Dutch milte, milt.

3. Possibly Germanic *malta-. MALT, from Old English mealt, malt.

4. Suffixed variant form *mled-sno-. BLENNY, from Greek blennos, slime, also a name for the blenny.

5. Suffixed zero-grade form *ml,d-wi-. MOIL, MOLLIFY, MOLLUSK, MOUILLé EMOLLIENT, from Latin mollis, soft.

6. Possibly nasalized variant form *mlad-. BLAND, BLANDISH, from Latin blandus, smooth, caressing, flattering, soft-spoken.

II. Variant form *smeld-. a. SMELT¹, from Middle Dutch or Middle Low German smelten, to smelt; b. SCHMALTZ, from Old High German smalz, animal fat; c. SMALT, from Italian smalto, enamel, glaze; d. ENAMEL, from Old French esmail, enamel. a–d all from Germanic *smelt-; e. SMELT², from Old English smelt, smylt, a marine fish, smelt, perhaps from Germanic *smelt-.

III. Extended form *meldh-.

1. MILD, from Old English milde, mild, from Germanic *mildja-.

2. Possibly Greek maltha, a mixture of wax and pitch: MALTHA.

IV. Suffixed form *mel-sko-. MULCH, from Old English mel(i)sc, mylsc, mild, mellow, from Germanic *mil-sk-.

V. Extended form *ml,@k-. BONANZA, CHONDROMALACIA, MALACOLOGY, OSTEOMALACIA, from Greek malakos, soft.

VI. Possibly Celtic *molto-, sheep. MUTTON, from Old French moton, sheep.

VII. Suffixed zero-grade form *(@)ml-u-. AMBLYGONITE, AMBLYOPIA, from Greek amblus, blunt, dull, dim.

(Pokorny 1. mel- 716.)

mel-2 Strong, great.

1. Suffixed (comparative) form *mel-yos-. AMELIORATE, MELIORATE, MELIORISM, from Latin melior, better.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *ml,-to-. MOLTO, MULTI-, MULTITUDE, from Latin multus, much, many.

(Pokorny 4. mel- 720.)

mel-3 False, bad, wrong.

1. MAL-, MALICE, MALIG; DISMAL, MALADY, MALARIA, MALEDICT, MALEFACTOR, MALEFIC, MALENTENDU, MALEVOLENCE, MALISON, MALVERSATION, from Latin malus, bad, and male, ill (> malignus, harmful).

2. Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form *ml,-s-. BLAME, BLASPHEME, from Greek blasphëmos, blasphemous, perhaps from *ml,s-bhä-mo-, “speaking evil” (*bhä-, to speak; see bhä-² ).

3. Suffixed form *mel-yo-. MARKHOR, from Avestan mairiia-, treacherous.

(Pokorny 2. mel- 719, mëlo- 724.)

mel@- Also mel-. To crush, grind; with derivatives referring to various ground or crumbling substances (such as flour) and to instruments for grinding or crushing (such as millstones). Oldest form *mel@₂-.

1. O-grade form *mol-. MAELSTROM, from Middle Dutch malen, to whirl, from Germanic *mal-.

2. Full-grade form *mel-. MEAL¹, from Old English melu, flour, meal, from Germanic suffixed form *mel-wa-.

3. Zero-grade form *ml,-. MOLD³, MOLDER, from Old English molde, soil, from Germanic suffixed form *mul-dö.

4. Full-grade form *mel-. a. MEUNIère, MILL¹, MOLA², MOLAR², MOLE⁴, MOULI; EMOLUMENT, IMMOLATE, ORMOLU, from Latin molere, to grind (grain), and its derivative mola, a millstone, mill, coarse meal customarily sprinkled on sacrificial animals; b. possible suffixed form *mel-iyo-. MEALIE, MILIARY, MILIUM, MILLE; GROMWELL, from Latin milium, millet.

5. Suffixed variant form *mal-ni-. MALLEABLE, MALLEOLUS, MALLET, MALLEUS, MAU; PALL-mall, from Latin malleus, hammer, mallet.

6. Zero-grade form *ml,-. AMYLUM, MYLONITE, from Greek mulë, mulos, millstone, mill.

7. Possibly extended form *mlï-. BLINI, BLINTZ, from Old Russian blinù, pancake.

(Pokorny 1. mel- 716.)

melg- To rub off; also to milk. Oldest form *melgì-, becoming *melg- in centum languages.

I.

1. Zero-grade form *ml,g-. EMULSION, from Latin mulgëre, to milk.

2. Full-grade form *melg-. a. MILK, from Old English meolc, milc; b. MILCH, from Old English -milce, milch, from Germanic suffixed form *meluk-ja-, giving milk; c. MILCHIG, from Old High German miluh, milk. a–c all from Germanic *melkan, to milk, contaminated with an unrelated noun for milk, cognate with the Greek and Latin forms given in II below, to form the blend *meluk-.

II. Included here to mark the unexplained fact that no common Indo-European noun for milk can be reconstructed is another root *g(a)lag-, *g(a)lakt-, milk, found only in: a. GALACTIC, GALACTO-, GALAX; AGALACTIA, POLYGALA, from Greek gala (stem galakt-), milk; b. LACTATE, LACTEAL, LACTESCENT, LACTO-, LATTE, LETTUCE, from Latin lac, milk; c. the blended Germanic form cited in I. 2. above.

(Pokorny mêlgì- 722, glag- 400.)

melit- Honey.

1. HYDROMEL, MARMALADE, MELILOT, OENOMEL, from Greek meli, honey. 2a. MELLIFEROUS, MELLIFLUOUS, MOLASSES, from Latin mel (stem mell-), honey, from *meld-, syncopated from *melid-; b. suffixed zero-grade form *ml,d-to-, “honied.” MOUSSE, from Latin mulsus, honey-sweet.

3. MILDEW, from Old English mildëaw, honeydew, nectar, from Germanic compound *melith-dauwaz, honeydew (a substance secreted by aphids on leaves; it was formerly imagined to be distilled from the air like dew; *dauwaz, dew; see dheu-¹ ), from *melith-.

(Pokorny meli-t 723.)

men-1 To think; with derivatives referring to various qualities and states of mind and thought. Derivatives include mind, mention, automatic, mania, money, monster, mosaic, music, and amnesia.

I. Zero-grade form *mn,-.

1. Suffixed form *mn,-ti-. a. MIND, from Old English gemynd, memory, mind, from Germanic *ga-mundi- (*ga-, intensive prefix; see kom ); b. MENTAL¹; AMENT², DEMENT, from Latin mëns (stem ment-), mind; c. MENTION, from Latin mentiö, remembrance, mention.

2. Suffixed form *mn,-to-. AUTOMATIC, from Greek -matos, “willing.”

3. Suffixed form *mn,-yo-. a. MAENAD, from Greek mainesthai, to be mad; b. AHRIMAN, from Avestan mainiius^, spirit. 4a. MANIA, MANIAC, MANIC, from Greek maniä, madness; b. BALLETOMANE, from Greek -manës, ardent admirer.

II. Full-grade form *men-.

1. Suffixed form *men-ti-. a. MINNESINGER, from Old High German minna, love; b. MINIKIN, from Middle Dutch minne, love. Both a and b from Germanic *minthjö. 2a. MEMENTO, from Latin reduplicated form meminisse, to remember; b. COMMENT, from Latin comminïscï, to contrive by thought (com-, intensive prefix; see kom ); c. REMINISCENT, from Latin reminïscï, to recall, recollect (re-, again, back; see re-); d. possibly Latin Minerva, name of the goddess of wisdom: MINERVA. 3a. MENTOR, from Greek Mentör, Mentor, man's name (probably meaning “adviser”); b. -mancy, MANTIC, MANTIS, from Greek mantis, seer (vocalism obscure).

4. MANDARIN, MANTRA, from Sanskrit mantrah., counsel, prayer, hymn.

5. Suffixed form men-es-. EUMENIDES, from Greek menos, spirit.

III. O-grade form *mon-.

1. Suffixed (causative) form *mon-eyo-. MONISH, MONITION, MONITOR, MONSTER, MONUMENT, MUSTE; ADMONISH, DEMONSTRATE, PREMONITION, SUMMON, from Latin monëre, to remind, warn, advise.

2. Suffixed o-grade form *mon-twa. MOSAIC, MUSE, MUSEUM, MUSIC, from Greek Mousa, a Muse.

IV. Extended form *mnä-, contracted from *mna@-.

1. AMNESIA, AMNESTY, ANAMNESIS, from Greek reduplicated form mimnëskein, to remember.

2. MNEMONIC, from Greek mnëmön, mindful.

3. MNEMOSYNE, from Greek mnëmë, memory.

V. Indo-European verb phrase *mens dhë-, “to set mind” (*dhë-, to put; see dhë- ), underlying compound noun *mn,s-dhë-. AHURA Mazda, MAZDAISM, ORMAZD, from Avestan mazdä-, wise.

(Pokorny 3. men- 726, mendh- 730.)

men-2 To project. Derivatives include mouth, menace, and mountain.

1. Suffixed zero-grade form *mn,-to- in a western Indo-European word for a projecting body part, variously “chin, jaw, mouth.” a. MOUTH, from Old English müth, mouth, from Germanic *munthaz; b. MENTAL², from Latin mentum, chin.

2. MENACE, MINACIOU; AMENABLE, DEMEAN¹, PROMENADE, from Latin minae, projecting points, threats.

3. EMINENT, IMMINENT, PROMINENT, PROMONTORY, from Latin -minëre, to project, jut, threaten.

4. Suffixed o-grade form *mon-ti-. MONS, MONTAGNARD, MONTANE, MONTE, MONTICULE, MOUNT¹, MOUNT², MOUNTAI; AMOUNT, ULTRAMONTANE, from Latin möns (stem mont-), mountain.

(Pokorny 1. men- 726, 2. menth- 732.)

men-3 To remain. Variant suffixed (stative) form *man-ë-. MANOR, MANSE, MANSION, Ménag; IMMANENT, PERMANENT, REMAIN, from Latin manëre, to remain.

(Pokorny 5. men- 729.)

men-4 Small, isolated.

1. MANOMETER, from Greek manos, rare, sparse.

2. Suffixed o-grade form *mon-wo-. MONAD, MONASTERY, MONK, MONO; PSEUDOMONAD, from Greek monos, alone, single, sole.

3. Possibly also suffixed form *men-i-, a small fish. MINNOW, from Middle English meneu, a small fish, from a source akin to Old English myne, mynwe, minnow.

(Pokorny 4. men- 728, m_eni- 731.)

mendh- To learn. Zero-grade form *mn,dh-. MATHEMATICAL, MATHEMATIC; CHRESTOMATHY, POLYMATH, from Greek manthanein (aorist stem math-), to learn.

(Pokorny mendh- 730.)

menegh- Copious. MANY, from Old English manig, mænig, many, from Germanic *managa-.

(Pokorny men(e)gh- 730.)

mer- To rub away, harm. Derivatives include nightmare, morsel, morbid, mortal, mortgage, and ambrosia.

I.

1. NIGHTMARE, from Old English mare, mære, goblin, incubus, from Germanic *marön-, goblin.

2. MARASMU; AMARANTH, from Greek marainein, to waste away, wither.

3. Probably suffixed zero-grade form *mr,-to-, “ground down.” MORTAR, from Latin mortärium, mortar.

4. Possibly extended root *merd-. MORDACIOUS, MORDANT, MORDENT, MORSE; PREMORSE, REMORSE, from Latin mordëre, to bite.

5. Possibly suffixed form *mor-bho-. MORBID, from Latin morbus, disease (but this is more likely of unknown origin).

II. Possibly the same root is *mer-, “to die,” with derivatives referring to death and to human beings as subject to death.

1. Zero-grade form *mr,-. a. Suffixed form *mr,-tro-. MURDER, from Old English morthor, murder, from Germanic suffixed form *mur-thra-; b. suffixed form *mr,-ti-. MORT¹, MORTA; AMORTIZE, MORTIFY, POSTMORTEM, from Latin mors (stem mort-), death; c. suffixed form *mr,-yo-. MORIBUND, MORTGAGE, MORTMAIN, MORTUARY, MURRAIN, from Latin morï, to die, with irregular past participle mortuus (< *mr,-two-), replacing older *mr,-to- (for which see d ); d. prefixed and suffixed form *n,-mr,-to-, “undying, immortal.” (*n,-, negative prefix; see ne ). i IMMORTAL, from Latin immortälis; ii AMBROSIA, from Greek ambrotos, immortal, divine (a- + -mbrotos, brotos, mortal); iii AMRITA, from Sanskrit amr.tam, immortality (a- + mr.ta-, dead).

2. Suffixed o-grade form *mor-t-yo-. MANTICORE, from Greek mantikhöras (corrupted from marti(o)khöras), manticore, probably from Iranian compound *martiya-khvära-, “man-eater” (*khvära-, eating; see swel- ), from Old Persian martiya-, a mortal man.

(Pokorny 4. mer-, 5. mer- 735.)

merg- Boundary, border. Oldest form *mergì-, becoming *merg- in centum languages. Derivatives include marquee, demarcation, and margin.

1 a. MARK¹, from Old English mearc, boundary, landmark, sign, trace; b. MARGRAVE, from Middle Dutch marc, border; c. MARCH², MARQUEE, MARQUIS, MARQUISE, from Old French marc, marche, border country; d. MARCHESE, MARCHIONESS, from Medieval Latin marca, boundary, border; e. DEMARCATION, from Old Italian marcare, to mark out; f. MARK², from Old English marc, a mark of weight or money; g. MARKKA, from Swedish mark, a mark of money; h. MARKA, from Middle High German marke, mark of money. a–h all from Germanic *mark-, boundary, border territory; also to mark out a boundary by walking around it (ceremonially “beating the bounds”); also a landmark, boundary marker, and a mark in general (and in particular a mark on a metal currency bar, hence a unit of currency); these various meanings are widely represented in Germanic descendants and in Romance borrowings.

2. LETTERS of marque, MARQUETR; REMARK, from Old Norse merki, a mark, from Germanic *markja-, mark, border.

3. MARC, MARCH¹, from Frankish *markön, to mark out, from Germanic denominative verb *markön.

4. MARGI; EMARGINATE, from Latin margö, border, edge.

5. Celtic variant form *mrog-, territory, land. CYMRY, from Welsh Cymro, Wales, from British Celtic *kom-brogos, fellow countryman (*kom-, collective prefix; see kom ), from *brogos, district.

(Pokorny meregì- 738.)

meu@- To push away. MOB, MOBILE, MOMENT, MOMENTOUS, MOMENTUM, MOSSO, MOTIF, MOTION, MOTIVE, MOTOR, MOVE, MOVEMEN; COMMOTION, EMOTION, PROMOTE, REMOTE, REMOVE, from Latin movëre, to move.

(Pokorny 2. meu_- 743.)

mizdho- Reward. MEED, from Old English mëd, reward, compensation, meed, from West Germanic *mëdö-, from Germanic *mizdö.

(Pokorny mizdhó- 746.)

mori- Body of water; lake (?), sea (?).

1 a. MERE²; MERMAID, from Old English mere, sea, lake, pond; b. MARRAM, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse marr, sea; c. MEERSCHAUM, from Old High German mari, sea; d. MEERKAT, from Middle Dutch meer, sea. a–d all from Germanic *mari-. 2a. MARSH, from Old English mersc, merisc, marsh; b. MORASS, from Old French maresc, mareis, marsh. Both a and b from Germanic *mariska-, water-logged land.

3. MAAR, MARE², MARINARA, MARINE, MARITIM; Bêche-de-mer, CORMORANT, MARICULTURE, ORMER, ULTRAMARINE, from Latin mare, sea.

(Pokorny mori 748.)

mregh-u- Short. Oldest form *mregìh-u-, becoming *mregh-u- in centum languages.

I. Suffixed form *mregh-wi-. BRIEF, BRUMA; ABBREVIATE, ABRIDGE, from Latin brevis, short.

II. Zero-grade form *mr,ghu-.

1 a. MERRY, from Old English myrge, mirige, pleasant; b. MIRTH, from Old English myrgth, pleasure, joy, from Germanic *murgithö, pleasantness. Both a and b from Germanic *murgja-, short, also pleasant, joyful.

2. BRACHY; AMPHIBRACH, TRIBRACH, from Greek brakhus, short.

3. BRACE³, BRACERO, BRACHIUM, BRASSARD, BRASSIERE, PRETZE; EMBRACE, from Greek comparative brakhiön, shorter, hence also “upper arm” (as opposed to the longer forearm).

(Pokorny mregìhu- 750.)

müs- A mouse; also a muscle (from the resemblance of a flexing muscle to the movements of a mouse).

1. MOUSE, from Old English müs (plural mÿs), mouse, from Germanic *müs- (plural *müsiz).

2. MURINE, MUSCLE, MUSSEL, MUSTELINE, from Latin müs, mouse.

3. MYELO-, MYO; EPIMYSIUM, MYOSOTIS, MYSTICETE, PERIMYSIUM, SYRINGOMYELIA, from Greek müs, mouse, muscle.

4. Perhaps suffixed reduced form *mus-ko-. MUSCADET, MUSCAT, MUSCATEL, MUSK, MUST⁵; NUTMEG, from Sanskrit mus.kah., testicle, scrotum (? < “little mouse”).

(Pokorny müs 752.)

nas- Nose.

1. NOSE, NUZZL; NOSTRIL, from Old English nosu, nose, from Germanic zero-grade form *nusö.

2. NESS, from Old English næss, headland, from Germanic *nasja-.

3. Lengthened-grade form *näs-. a. NARIS, from Latin näris, nostril; b. expressive form *näss-. NASAL, NASO; NASTURTIUM, PINCE-nez, from Latin näsus, nose.

4. NARK², from Romany näk, nose, from expressive Indo-Aryan form *nakka-.

(Pokorny nas- 755, neu-ks- 768.)

näu- Boat. Oldest form *ne@₂u-, colored to *na@₂u-, contracted to *nau- (before consonants) and *näw- (before vowels).

1. NACELLE, NAVAL, NAVE¹, NAVICULAR, NAVIGATE, NAVY, from Latin nävis, ship.

2. NAUSEA, NAUTICAL, NAUTILUS, NOIS; AERONAUT, AQUANAUT, ARGONAUT, ASTRONAUT, COSMONAUT, from Greek naus, ship, and nautës, sailor.

(Pokorny 1. näus- 755.)

n,dher- Under.

1 a. UNDER, UNDER-, from Old English under, under; b. U-boat, from Old High German untar, under. Both a and b from Germanic *under-.

2. INFERIOR, from Latin ïnferus, lower.

3. INFERNAL, INFERNO, from Latin ïnfernus, lower.

4. INFRA-, from Latin ïnfrä, below.

(Pokorny n,dhos 771.)

ne Not. Derivatives include naughty, never, nothing, annul, nice, annihilate, negligee, deny, and renegade.

1 a. NAUGHT, NAUGHTY, NEITHER, NEVER, NILL, NO¹, NO², NONE, NOR¹, NOT, NOTHING, from Old English ne, not, and nä, no; b. NAY, from Old Norse ne, not; c. NIX², from Old High German ne, ni, not. a–c all from Germanic *ne-, *na-.

2. ANNUL, NEFARIOUS, NESCIENCE, NEUTER, NICE, NULL, NULLIFY, NULLIPARA, from Latin ne-, not, and nüllus, none (ne- + üllus, any; see oi-no- ).

3. NIMIETY, from Latin nimis, too much, excessively, very (< *ne-mi-s, “not little”; *mi-, little; see mei-² ).

4. NIHILISM, NIHILITY, NI; ANNIHILATE, from Latin nihil, nïl, nothing, contracted from nihilum, nothing (< *ne-hïlum, “not a whit, nothing at all”; hïlum, a thing, trifle; origin unknown).

5. NON; NONPLUS, NONSUIT, from Latin nön, not (< *ne-oinom, not one thing”; *oino-, one; see oi-no- ).

6. NISI, from Latin nisi, unless (nï, not, from *nei + sï, if; see swo- ). 7a. NEGLECT, NEGLIGEE, NEGOTIATE, from Latin prefix neg-, not; b. NEGAT; ABNEGATE, DENY, RENEGADE, RENEGE, from Latin negäre, to deny. Both a and b from Italic *nek, not.

8. NEPENTHE, from Greek në-, not.

9. Zero-grade combining form *n,-. a. i UN-¹, from Old English un-, not; ii ZUGUNRUHE, from Old High German un-, not. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *un-; b. IN-¹, from Latin in-, not; c. A-¹, AN-, from Greek a-, an-, not; d. AHIMSA, from Sanskrit a-, an-, not; e. compound *n,-mr,-to- (see mer- ).

(Pokorny 1. nè 756.)

nebh- Cloud.

1. Suffixed form *nebh-(e)lo-. a. NIFLHEIM, from Old Norse nifl-, “mist” or “dark,” probably from Germanic *nibila-; b. NIBELUNG, from Old High German Nibulunc, Nibilung, from Germanic suffixed patronymic form *nibul-unga-, beside Old High German nebul, mist, fog, from Germanic *nebla-.

2. Suffixed form *nebh-elä-. a. NEBULA, NEBULOUS, from Latin nebula, cloud; b. NEPHELIN; NEPHELOMETER, from Greek nephelë, cloud.

3. Suffixed form *nebh-es-. NEPHOLOGY, from Greek nephos, cloud.

4. Nasalized form *ne-m-bh-. NIMBUS, from Latin nimbus, rain, cloud, aura.

(Pokorny 2. (enebh-) 315.)

ned- To bind, tie.

1. O-grade form *nod-. a. NET¹, from Old English net(t), a net, from Germanic *nati-; b. NETTLE, from Old English netel(e), netle, nettle, from Germanic *nat-ilo, a nettle (nettles or plants of closely related genera such as hemp were used as a source of fiber); c. OUCH², from Anglo-Norman nouch, brooch, from Germanic *nat-sk-.

2. Lengthened o-grade form *nödo-. NODE, NODULE, NODUS, NOIL, NOOS; Dénouement, from Latin nödus, a knot.

3. With re-formation of the root. NEXU; ADNEXA, ANNEX, CONNECT, from Latin nectere (past participle nexus), to tie, bind, connect.

(Pokorny 1. ned- 758.)

nek-1 Death. Oldest form *nekì-, becoming *nek- in centum languages. Derivatives include nuisance, innocent, and nectarine.

1. INTERNECINE, PERNICIOUS, from Latin nex (stem nec-), death.

2. Suffixed (causative) o-grade form *nok-eyo-. NOCENT, NOCUOUS, NUISANC; INNOCENT, INNOCUOUS, from Latin nocëre, to injure, harm.

3. Suffixed o-grade form *nok-s-. NOXIOU; OBNOXIOUS, from Latin noxa, injury, hurt, damage entailing liability.

4. Suffixed full-grade form *nek-ro-. NECRO-, NECROSI; NECROMANCY, from Greek nekros, corpse.

5. NECTAR, NECTARINE, from Greek nektar, the drink of the gods, “overcoming death” (*tar-, overcoming; see ter@-² ).

(Pokorny nekì- 762.)

nek-2 To reach, attain. Oldest form *nekì-, becoming *nek- in centum languages.

I. O-grade form *nok-. ENOUGH, from Old English genög, enough, from Germanic *ganöga-, sufficient, from *ga-nah, “suffices” (*ga-, intensive prefix; see kom ).

II. Variant form *enk-.

1. ONCOGENESIS, ONCOLOGY, from Greek reduplicated enenkein, to carry (suppletive aorist of pherein, to carry; see bher-), with derived noun onkos, a burden, mass, hence a tumor (from suffixed o-grade *onk-o-; see 2 below).

2. Suffixed o-grade form *onk-o-. BAISA, PAISA, PICE, from Sanskrit as'ah., part, portion.

3. Compound root *bhrenk- (see bher¹).

(Pokorny enekì- 316.)

nekw-t- Night. Probably from a verbal root *neg^w-, to be dark, be night. O-grade form *nok^w-t-.

1 a. NIGH; FORTNIGHT, from Old English niht, neaht, night; b. KRISTALLNACHT, from Old High German naht, night. Both a and b from Germanic *naht-.

2. NOCTI-, NOCTURN, NOCTURNAL, EQUINOX, from Latin nox (stem noct-), night.

3. NOCTUID, NOCTULE, from Latin noctua, night owl.

4. NYCTALOPIA, NYCTITROPISM, from Greek nux (stem nukt-), night.

5. Suffixed plain verbal root *neg^w-ro-. NEGRO, NIELLO, NIGELLA, NIGRESCENCE, NIGROSIN; DENIGRATE, STREPTONIGRIN, from Latin niger, black.

(Pokorny neku_-(t-) 762.)

nem- To assign, allot; also to take. Derivatives include numb, nemesis, and nomad.

1 a. NIM¹, NUM; BENUMB, from Old English niman, to take, seize; b. NIMBLE, from Old English naëmel, quick to seize, and numol, quick at learning, seizing; c. NIM², from Old High German nëman, to take. a–c all from Germanic *nem-.

2. NEMESI; ECONOMY, from Greek nemein, to allot.

3. O-grade form *nom-. a. LUMMA, NOME, -nom; ANOMIE, ANTINOMIAN, ANTINOMY, ASTRONOMER, ASTRONOMY, AUTONOMOUS, DEUTERONOMY, METRONOME, NOMOGRAPH, NOMOLOGY, NOMOTHETIC, NUMISMATIC, from Greek nomos, portion, usage, custom, law, division, district; b. NOMA, from Greek nomë, pasturage, grazing, hence a spreading, a spreading ulcer; c. NOMAD, from Greek nomas, wandering in search of pasture; d. NUMMULAR, NUMMULITE, from Greek nomimos, legal.

4. Perhaps suffixed o-grade form *nom-eso-. NUMBER, NUMERA; ENUMERATE, INNUMERABLE, SUPERNUMERARY, from Latin numerus, number, division.

(Pokorny 1. nem- 763.)

nepöt- Grandson, nephew. Feminine *neptï-. NEPHEW, NEPOTISM, NIECE, from Latin nepös, grandson, nephew, and neptis, granddaughter, niece.

(Pokorny nepöt- 764.)

ner-1 Under, also on the left; hence, with an eastward orientation, north. Suffixed zero-grade form *nr,-t(r)o-. a. NORDIC, NORTH, from Old English north, north; b. NORTHERN, from Old English northerne, northern; c. NORSE, from Middle Dutch nort, north; d. NORMAN¹, NORWEGIAN, from Old Norse nordhr, north.

(Pokorny 2. ner- 765.) Compare deks- .

ner-2 Man; basic sense “vigorous, vital, strong.” Oldest root form *@₂ner-. ANDRO-, -androus, -andr; PHILANDER, from Greek anër (stem andr-, from zero-grade form *@nr-), man.

(Pokorny 1. ner-(t-) 765.)

nes-1 To return safely home.

1. HARNESS, from Old French harneis, harness, possibly from a Germanic source akin to Old English, Old High German (in composition), and Old Norse nest, food for a journey, from Germanic *nes-tam.

2. Suffixed o-grade form *nos-to-. NOSTALGIA, from Greek nostos, a return home.

(Pokorny nes- 766.)

nes-2 Oblique cases of the personal pronoun of the first person plural. For the nominative see we- .

1. Zero-grade form *n,s-. US, from Old English üs, us (accusative), from Germanic *uns.

2. Suffixed (possessive) zero-grade form *n,s-ero-. OUR, OURS, from Old English üser, üre, our, from Germanic *unsara-.

3. O-grade form *nos-, with suffixed (possessive) form *nos-t(e)ro-. NOSTRATIC, NOSTRU; PATERNOSTER, from Latin nös, we, and noster, our.

(Pokorny 3. ne- 758.)

neu- To shout. Suffixed (participial) o-grade form *now-ent-(yo-), “shouting.” NUNCI; ANNOUNCE, DENOUNCE, ENUNCIATE, INTERNUNCIO, PRONOUNCE, RENOUNCE, from Latin nüntius, “announcing,” hence a messenger, also a message, and nüntium, message.

(Pokorny 1. neu- 767.)

newn, Nine.

1. NINE, NINETEEN, NINETY, NINTH, from Old English nigon, nine, with derivatives nigontig, ninety, and nigontëne, nineteen (-tëne, ten; see dekm, ), from Germanic *nigun, variant of *niwun.

2. NOVEMBER, NOVEN; NONAGENARIAN, from Latin novem, nine (< *noven, with m for n by analogy with the m of septem, seven, and decem, ten).

3. Ordinal form *neweno-. NONA-, NONES, NOO; NONAGON, NONANOIC acid, from Latin nönus, ninth.

4. Prothetic or prefixed forms *@₁newn,, *@₁nwn,. ENNEAD, from Greek ennea, nine (< *ennewa, *enwa-).

(Pokorny e-neu_en 318.)

newo- New. Related to nu- . Derivatives include neon and nova.

1. Suffixed form *new-yo-. a. NEW, from Old English nëowe, nïwe, new; b. NYNORSK, SPAN-new, from Old Norse nÿr, new. Both a and b from Germanic *neuja-.

2. Basic form *newo-. NEO-, NEON, NEOTERI; MISONEISM, from Greek newos, neos, new.

3. Suffixed form *new-aro-. ANEROID, from Greek nëron, water, from nëros, fresh (used of fish and of water), contracted from nearos, young, fresh.

4. Basic form *newo-. NOVA, NOVATION, NOVEL¹, NOVEL², NOVELTY, NOVICE, NOVILLADA, NOVILLER; INNOVATE, RENOVATE, from Latin novus, new.

5. Suffixed form *new-er-ko-. NOVERCAL, from Latin noverca, stepmother (< “she who is new”).

(Pokorny neu_os 769.)

nobh- Also ombh-. Navel; later also “central knob,” boss of a shield, hub of a wheel. Oldest form *@₃nobh-, variant *@₃ombh- (< *@₃onbh-).

1 a. NAVE², from Old English nafu, nafa, hub of a wheel; b. AUGER, from Old English nafogär, auger, from Germanic compound *nabö-gaizaz, tool for piercing wheel hubs (*gaizaz, spear, piercing tool). Both a and b from Germanic *nabö.

2. Variant form *ombh-. UMBO, from Latin umbö, boss of a shield.

3. Suffixed form *nobh-alo-. NAVEL, from Old English nafela, navel, from Germanic *nabalö.

4. Suffixed variant form *ombh-alo-. a. UMBILICU; NOMBRIL, from Latin umbilïcus, navel; b. OMPHALOS, from Greek omphalos, navel.

(Pokorny 1. (enebh-) 314.)

nogh- Also ongh-. Nail, claw. Oldest forms *@₃nogh-, *@₃ongh-.

1. Suffixed (diminutive) form *nogh-elo-. NAIL, from Old English nægl, nail, from Germanic *nagla-.

2. Form *@nogh-. ONY; PARONYCHIA, PERIONYCHIUM, SARDONYX, from Greek onux (stem onukh-), nail.

3. Variant form *ongh-. UNGUICULATE, UNGUIS, UNGULATE, from Latin unguis, nail, claw, hoof, with diminutive ungula, hoof, claw, talon (< *ongh-elä-).

(Pokorny onogh- 780.)

nogw- Naked.

1. Suffixed forms *nog^w-eto-, *nog^w-oto-. NAKED, from Old English nacod, naked, from Germanic *nakweda-, *nakwada-.

2. Suffixed form *nog^w-edo-. NUDE, NUDI; DENUDE, from Latin nüdus, naked.

3. Suffixed form *nog^w-mo-. GYMNASIUM, GYMNAS; GYMNOSOPHIST, GYMNOSPERM, from Greek gumnos, naked (with metathesis due to taboo deformation).

4. Suffixed form *nog^w-no-. NAAN, from Old Persian *nagna-, bare, naked.

(Pokorny nogu_- 769.)

nô-men- Name. Oldest form *@₁no(&schwa₃)-mn,, zero-grade form *@₁n,(@₃)-men-.

1. NAME, from Old English nama, name, from Germanic *namön-.

2. NOMINAL, NOMINATE, NOU; AGNOMEN, BINOMIAL, COGNOMEN, DENOMINATE, IGNOMINY, MISNOMER, NOMENCLATOR, NUNCUPATIVE, PRAENOMEN, PRONOUN, RENOWN, from Latin nömen, name, reputation.

3. ONOMASTIC, -onym, -onym; ALLONYM, ANONYMOUS, ANTONOMASIA, EPONYM, EPONYMOUS, EUONYMUS, HETERONYMOUS, HOMONYMOUS, MATRONYMIC, METONYMY, ONOMATOPOEIA, PARONOMASIA, PARONYMOUS, PATRONYMIC, PSEUDONYM, SYNONYMOUS, from Greek onoma, onuma, name (assimilated from enuma, preserved in proper names in Laconian).

4. MONIKER, from Old Irish ainm, name.

(Pokorny en(o)mn,- 321.)

nu- Now. Related to newo- .

1. NOW, from Old English nü, now.

2. QUIDNUNC, from Latin nunc, now (< *nun-ce; -ce, a particle meaning “this,” “here”; see ko- ).

(Pokorny nu- 770.)

od- To hate. ANNOY, ENNUI, NOISOME, ODIUM, from Latin ödï, I hate, and odium, hatred.

(Pokorny 2. od- 773.)

oi-no- One, unique. Derivatives include once, atone, union, universe, and any.

I. Basic form *oi-no-.

1 a. A¹, AN¹, ONCE, ON; ALONE, ANON, ATONE, LONE, LONELY, NONE, from Old English än, one; b. ELEVEN, from Old English endleofan, eleven, from Germanic compound *ain-lif-, “one left (beyond ten),” eleven (*lif-, left over; see leik^w- ); c. EINKORN, TURNVEREIN, from Old High German ein, one. a–c all from Germanic *ainaz.

2. UNI-, UNION, UNITE, UNIT; COADUNATE, TRIUNE, UNANIMOUS, UNICORN, UNIVERSE, from Latin ünus, one.

3. INDRICOTHERE, from Old Russian inù, one.

4. Latin nön, not (< *ne-oinom, “not one thing”; see ne ).

II. Suffixed form *oino-ko-. a. ANY, from Old English aënig, one, anyone, from Germanic *ainigaz; b. UNIQUE, from Latin ünicus, sole, single; c. INCH¹, OUNCE¹, UNCIA; QUINCUNX, from Latin üncia, one twelfth of a unit.

III. Suffixed form *oino-lo- in Latin üllus (see ne ).

(Pokorny 3. D. e- 281.)

oktö(u) Eight. Oldest form *okìtö(u), becoming *oktö(u) in centum languages.

1 a. EIGHT, EIGHTEEN, EIGHTY, from Old English eahta, eight, with derivatives eahtatig, eighty, and eahtatëne, eighteen (-tëne, ten; see dekm, ); b. ATTO-, from Old Norse ättjän, eighteen (tjän, ten; see dekm, ). Both a and b from Germanic *ahtö.

2. OCTANS, OCTANT, OCTAVE, OCTAVO, OCTET, OCTO-, OCTOBER, OCTONAR; OCTODECIMO, OCTOGENARIAN, from Latin octö, eight.

3. OCTAD, OCTO; OCTOPUS, from Greek oktö, eight.

4. AT², from Sanskrit as.t.ä, eight.

(Pokorny okìtö(u) 775.)

öku- Swift. Oldest form *ökìu-, becoming *öku- in centum languages.

1. OXYTOCIC, from Greek ökus, swift (rapide, prompt).

2. Possibly altered zero-grade form *aku- in compound *aku-petro-, “swift-flying” (*pet-ro-, flying; see pet- ). ACCIPITER, from Latin accipiter, hawk.

(Pokorny ökìú-s 775.) See also ekwo- .

okw- To see. Oldest form *@₃ek^w-, colored to *@₃ok^w-, zero-grade *@₃k^w-. Derivatives include eye, daisy, window, inoculate, and autopsy.

1 a. EY; DAISY, from Old English ëage, eye; b. WALLEYED, WINDOW, from Old Norse auga, eye; c. OGLE, from Low German oog, oge, eye. a–c all from Germanic *augön- (with taboo deformation).

2. Suffixed form *ok^w-olo-. a. EYELET, OCELLUS, OCULAR, OCULIST, OCULUS, ULLAG; ANTLER, INOCULATE, MONOCLE, OCULOMOTOR, PINOCHLE, from Latin oculus, eye; b. INVEIGLE, from French aveugle, blind, from Gallo-Latin compound *ab-oculus, blind, calqued on Gaulish exs-ops, blind.

3. Form *ok^w-s. CERATOPSIAN, METOPIC, MYOPIA, NYCTALOPIA, PELOPS, PHLOGOPITE, PROSOPOGRAPHY, PROSOPOPOEIA, PYROPE, TRICERATOPS, from Greek öps, eye (and stem *op-, to see).

4. Suffixed form *ok^w-ti-. OPSIN, -opsis, -ops; AUTOPSY, DROPSY, IODOPSIN, RHODOPSIN, SYNOPSIS, from Greek opsis, sight, appearance.

5. Suffixed form *ok^w-to-. OPTI; DIOPTER, OPTOELECTRONICS, OPTOMETRY, PANOPTIC, from Greek optos, seen, visible.

6. Suffixed form *ok^w-ä-. METOPE, from Greek opë, opening.

7. Suffixed form *ok^w-mn,. OMMATIDIUM, OMMATOPHORE, from Greek omma (< *opma), eye.

8. Suffixed form *ok^w-tro-. CATOPTRIC, from Greek katoptron, “back-looker,” mirror (kata-, down, back; see kat- ).

9. OPHTHALMO; EXOPHTHALMOS, from Greek ophthalmos, eye (with taboo deformation).

10. Zero-grade form *@k^w-, in compounds (see ant- , äter- , ghwer- ).

(Pokorny oku_- 775.)

op- To work, produce in abundance. Oldest form *@₃ep-, colored to *@₃op-. Derivatives include opera¹, maneuver, manure, opulent, and cornucopia.

1. Suffixed form *op-es-. OPERA¹, OPERATE, OPEROSE, OPU; COOPERATE, INURE, MANEUVER, MANURE, OFFICINAL, STOVER, from Latin opus (stem oper-), work, with its denominative verb operärï, to work, and secondary noun opera, work.

2. Italic compound *opi-fici-om (see dhë- ).

3. Suffixed form *op-en-ent-. OPULENT, from Latin dissimilated opulentus, rich, wealthy.

4. Suffixed form *op-ni-. OMNI-, OMNIBU; OMNIUM-gatherum, from Latin omnis, all (< “abundant”).

5. Suffixed (superlative) form *op-tamo-. OPTIMUM, from Latin optimus, best (< “wealthiest”).

6. COPIOUS, COP; CORNUCOPIA, from Latin cöpia, profusion, plenty, from prefixed form *co-op- (co-, collective and intensive prefix; see kom ).

(Pokorny 1. op- 780.)

or- Large bird. Oldest form *@₃er-, colored to *@₃or-.

1. Suffixed form *or-n-. ERNE, from Old English earn, eagle, from Germanic *arnuz, eagle.

2. Suffixed form *or-n-ïth-. ORNITHO; AEPYORNIS, ICHTHYORNIS, NOTORNIS, from Greek ornïs (stem ornïth-), bird.

(Pokorny 1. er- 325.)

orbh- To change allegiance or status. Oldest form *@₃erbh-, colored *@₃orbh-. Suffixed form *orbh-o-, “bereft of father,” also “deprived of free status.” a. ORPHAN, from Greek orphanos, orphaned; b. ROBOT, from Czech robota, compulsory labor, drudgery, from Old Church Slavonic rabota, servitude, from rabù, slave, from Old Slavic *orbù; c. GASTARBEITER, from Old High German arabeit(i), labor, from Germanic *arb-aithi- (source of suffix uncertain).

(Pokorny orbho- 781.)

ors- Buttocks, backside.

1. Suffixed form *ors-o-. a. ASS², from Old English ærs, ears, backside; b. DODO, from Middle Dutch ærs, backside, tail. Both a and b from Germanic *arsaz.

2. Suffixed form *ors-ä-. a. URO-², -urou; ANTHURIUM, ANURAN, CYNOSURE, DASYURE, EREMURUS, OPHIUROID, OXYURIASIS, SCIURID, SQUIRREL, TRICHURIASIS, from Greek ourä, tail; orros, sacrum b. SILURID, from Greek silouros, sheatfish, probably from ourä, tail (with an obscure first element).

hittite arrash, armenian or, buttock; old irish err, tail

(Pokorny ers- 340.)

ös- Mouth. Oldest form *@₃ös-, but precise preform uncertain.

1. ORAL, OS¹, OSCILLATE, OSCULATE, OSCULUM, OSTIARY, OSTIUM, USHE; INOSCULATE, ORIFICE, ORINASAL, OROTUND, OSCITANCY, PERORAL, from Latin ös (stem ör-), mouth, face, orifice, and derivative östium (< suffixed form *ös-to-), door.

2. AURIGA, from Latin aurïga, charioteer (< *ör-ïg-, “he who manages the (horse's) bit”; -ïg-, lengthened from ig-, driving, from *ag-; see ag- ), possibly from ös-.

(Pokorny 1. öus- 784.)

ost- Bone. Oldest form *@₂ost-, with e-grade *@₂est- colored to *@₂ast-.

1. OS², OSSEOUS, OSSICLE, OSSUAR; OSSIFRAGE, OSSIFY, from Latin os (stem oss-), bone.

2. OSTEO; ENDOSTEUM, EXOSTOSIS, PERIOSTEUM, SYNOSTOSIS, TELEOST, from Greek osteon, bone.

3. Suffixed form *ost-r-. a. OSTRACIZE, OSTRACOD, OSTRACO; OSTRACODERM, PERIOSTRACUM, from Greek ostrakon, shell, potsherd; b. e-grade form *@est-, becoming *ast-. OYSTER, from Greek ostreon, oyster; c. ASTRAGAL, ASTRAGALUS, from Greek astragalos, vertebra, ball of the ankle joint, knucklebone, Ionic molding.

(Pokorny ost(h)- 783.)

ous- Also aus-. Ear. Oldest form *@₂ous-, with e-grade *@₂eus- colored to *@₂aus-.

1. Suffixed form *ous-en-. EAR¹, from Old English ëare, ear, from Germanic *auzön-.

2. Suffixed form *aus-i-. AURAL¹, AURICL; AURIFORM, ORMER, from Latin auris, ear.

3. AUSCULTATION, SCOUT¹, from Latin auscultäre, to listen to (< *aus-klit-ä-; *aus- + *kli-to-, inclined; see klei- ).

4. Suffixed basic form *ous-os-. OTIC, OTO; MYOSOTIS, PAROTID gland, from Greek ous (stem öt-), ear.

5. Basic form *ous- in Greek compound *lag-ous- (see slëg- ).

(Pokorny 2. öus- 785.)

owi- Sheep. Oldest form *@₂owi-.

1. EWE, from Old English ëwe, eöwu, ewe, from Germanic *awi-.

2. OVINE, from Latin ovis, sheep.

(Pokorny óu_i-s 784.)

pä- To protect, feed. Oldest form *pe@₂-, colored to *pa@₂-, contracted to *pä-. Derivatives include fodder, forage, fur, food, foster, pasture, pantry, and company.

1. Suffixed form *pä-trom. a. FODDER, from Old English födor, fodder; b. FORAGE, FORAY, FOURRAGère, from Old French feurre, fodder; c. FUR, FURRIER, from Old French forre, fuerre, trimming made from animal skin, fur (< “sheath, case, lining”). a–c all from Germanic *födram.

2. Suffixed form *pä-dhlom (doublet of *pä-trom). PABULUM, from Latin päbulum, food, fodder.

3. Extended form *pät-. a. FOOD, from Old English föda, food, from Germanic *föd-, food; b. FEED, from Old English fëdan, to feed, from Germanic denominative *födjan, to give food to; c. suffixed form *pät-tro-. FOSTER, from Old English föstor, food, nourishment, from Germanic *föstra-.

4. Extended form *päs-. a. Suffixed form *päs-sko-. PASTUR; ANTIPASTO, REPAST, from Latin päscere, to feed; b. suffixed form *päs-tor-. PASTERN, PASTOR, PESTER, from Latin pästor, shepherd; c. suffixed form *päs-t-ni-. PANADA, PANATELA, PANIC grass, PANNIER, PANOCHA, PANTRY, PASTILLE, PENUCH; APPANAGE, COMPANION¹, COMPANY, from Latin pänis, bread.

5. Suffixed form *pä-tor-. BEZOAR, from Persian päd, protecting against, from Iranian *pätar- (Avestan pätar-).

6. Suffixed form *pä-won-, protector. SATRAP, from Old Persian khshathra-pävä, protector of the province.

(Pokorny pä- 787, 1. pö(i)- 839.)

pa@wr, Fire. Oldest form *pe@₂wr,, colored to *pa@₂wr,, with zero-grade *p@₂ur- metathesized to *pu@₂r-. Zero-grade form *pür- (contracted from *pu@r-).

1. FIRE, from Old English fÿr, fire, from Germanic suffixed form *für-i-.

2. PYRE, PYRETIC, PYRITES, PYRO-, PYROSIS, PYRRHOTIT; EMPYREAL, from Greek pür, fire.

(Pokorny peu_ör 828.)

pag- Also pak-. To fasten (fixer). Oldest forms *pagì-, *pakì-, becoming *pag-, *pak- in centum languages. Derivatives include fang, peace, pact, palisade, and travel.

1. Lengthened-grade form *päk-. FAY¹, from Old English fëgan, to fit closely, from Germanic *fögjan, to join, fit.

2. Nasalized form *pa-n-g-, also *pa-n-k-. a. i FANG, from Old English fang, feng, plunder, booty, from Germanic *fangam, *fangiz; ii VANG, from Dutch vangen, to catch, from remade Germanic verb *fangan; iii NEWFANGLED, from Middle English *-fangel, taken, akin to Old High German -fangolon, to close, from Germanic *fanglön, to grasp. (i)–(iii) all derivatives of Germanic *fanhan, to seize; b. COMPACT¹, IMPACT, IMPINGE, SPINTO, from Latin pangere, to fasten.

3. Root form *pâk-. a. PACE², PAX, PAY¹, PEAC; APPEASE, PACIFIC, PACIFY, from Latin päx, peace (< “a binding together by treaty or agreement”); b. PACT, PATIO, from Latin pacïscï, to agree.

4. Suffixed form *pak-slo-. a. PALE¹, PALISADE, PAWL, PEEL³, POLE²; IMPALE, TRAVAIL, TRAVEL, from Latin pälus, stake (fixed in the ground); b. probably Latin päla, spade: PALETTE, PEEL².

5. Lengthened-grade form *päg-. a. PAGAN, PEASANT, from Latin pägus, “boundary staked out on the ground,” district, village, country; b. PAGE¹, PAGEANT, from Latin pägina, “trellis to which a row of vines is fixed,” hence (by metaphor) column of writing, page; c. PROPAGATE, from Latin pröpägäre, to propagate (< “to fix before”; prö-, before, in front; see per¹ ); d. PECTIN, PEGMATIT; AREOPAGUS, MASTOPEXY, from Greek pëgnunai, to fasten, coagulate, with derivative pagos (< *pag-o-), mass, hill.

(Pokorny pâkì- 787.)

päl- To touch, feel, shake. Earlier *pe@₂l-, colored to *pa@₂l-, contracted to *päl-.

1 a. FEEL, from Old English fëlan, to examine by touch, feel; b. SPRACHGEFühl, from Old High German vuolen, to feel. Both a and b from Germanic *följan, to feel.

2. Reduplicated zero-grade form *pal-p- (from *p@l-p(@)-. a. PALP, from Latin palpus, a touching; b. PALPABLE, PALPATE¹, PALPITATE, from Latin palpärï, palpäre, to stroke gently, touch; c. PALPEBRA, from Latin palpebra, eyelid (< “that which shakes or moves quickly”).

3. Perhaps expressive reduplicated form *pal-pal-. PAPILIONACEOUS, PAPILLON, PAPILLOTE, PAVILION, from Latin päpiliö, butterfly.

4. Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form *pal-yo-. CATAPULT, from Greek pallein, to sway, brandish.

5. Perhaps suffixed form *psal-yo-. PSALM, PSALTERY, from Greek psallein, to pluck, play the harp (but more likely of imitative origin).

(Pokorny 1. G. pel- 801, polo- 841.)

pan- Fabric.

1 a. VANE, from Old English fana, flag, banner, weathercock; b. Germanic compound *gund-fanön- (see g^when- ). Both a and b from Germanic *fanön.

2. Extended form *panno-. PANE, PANEL, from Latin pannus, piece of cloth, rag.

(Pokorny pân- 788.)

pant- All. Attested only in Tocharian and Greek. PAN; DIAPASON, PANCRATIUM, PANCREAS, from Greek päs (neuter pan, stem pant-), all. (In Pokorny 1. kìeu- 592.)

papa A child's word for “father,” a linguistic near-universal found in many languages.

1. PAPA, from French papa, father.

2. PAPPUS, POPE, from Greek pappäs, father, and pappos, grandfather.

(Pokorny pap(p)a 789.)

past- Solid, firm.

1 a. FAST¹; SHAMEFACED, STEADFAST, from Old English fæst, fixed, firm; b. AVAST, from Middle Dutch vast, firm, fast. Both a and b from Germanic *fastuz, firm, fast.

2. FASTEN, from Old English fæstnian, to fasten, establish, from Germanic *fastinön, to make firm or fast.

3. HANDFAST, from Old Norse festa, to fix, affirm, from Germanic causative *fastjan, to make firm. 4a. FAST², from Old English fæstan, to abstain from food; b. BREAKFAST, from Old Norse fasta, to abstain from food. Both a and b from Germanic *fastën, to hold fast, observe abstinence.

(Pokorny pasto- 789.)

pau-1 Few, little. Oldest form *pe@₂u-, colored to *pa@₂u-. Derivatives include few, pauper, foal, pony, and pullet.

I. Adjectival form *pau-, few, little.

1. FEW, from Old English fëawe, few, from Germanic *fawaz.

2. Suffixed form *pau-ko-. PAUCITY, POCO, from Latin paucus, little, few.

3. Suffixed form *pau-ro- in metathetical form *par-wo-. PARAFFIN, PARVOVIRUS, from Latin parvus, little, small, neuter parvum, becoming parum, little, rarely.

4. Compound *pau-paros, producing little, poor (*par-os, producing; see per@-¹ ). PAUPER, POOR, POVERT; DEPAUPERATE, IMPOVERISH, from Latin pauper, poor.

II. Suffixed zero-grade form *pu-lo-, young of an animal.

1. FOAL, from Old English fola, young horse, colt, from Germanic *fulön-.

2. FILLY, from Old Norse fylja, young female horse, from Germanic derivative *fuljö.

III. Basic form *pau- and zero-grade form *pû-, boy, child.

1. Suffixed form *pu-ero-. PUERILE, PUERPERAL, from Latin puer, child.

2. Extended form *put-. a. POLTROON, PONY, POOL², POULARD, POULTER's measure, POULTRY, PULLET, PUNCHINELL; CATCHPOLE, from Latin pullus (< *putslo-), young of an animal, chicken; b. PUSILLANIMOUS, from Latin pusillus (< *putslo-lo-), old diminutive of pullus; c. further suffixed form *put-o-. PUTTO, from Latin putus, boy.

3. Suffixed form *paw-id-. PEDO-²; ENCYCLOPEDIA, ORTHOPEDICS, from Greek pais (stem paid-), child (> paideia, education).

(Pokorny pöu- 842.)

pau-2 To cut, strike, stamp. Oldest form *pe@₂u-, colored to *pa@₂u-.

1. Suffixed (participial) zero-grade form *pu-to-, cut, struck. a. PUTAMEN, PUTATIV; ACCOUNT, AMPUTATE, COMPUTE, COUNT¹, DEPUTE, DISPUTE, IMPUTE, REPUTE, from Latin putäre, to prune, clean, settle an account, think over, reflect; b. possibly Latin puteus, well: PIT¹.

2. Basic form *pau-. a. Suffixed form *pau-yo. PAVE, PAVé, from Latin pavïre, to beat; b. suffixed (stative) form *paw-ë-. PAVID, from Latin pavëre, to fear (< “to be struck”); c. perhaps Greek paiein, to beat: ANAPEST.

(Pokorny 3. pëu- 827.)

ped- Foot. Derivatives include foot, fetter, pioneer, millipede, impeach, pajamas, fetch¹, pessimism, and impeccable.

I. Nominal root.

1. Lengthened o-grade form *pöd-. FOOT, from Old English föt, foot, from Germanic *föt-.

2. Suffixed form *ped-ero-. FETTER, from Old English fetor, feter, leg iron, fetter, from Germanic *feterö.

3. Suffixed form *ped-el-. FETLOCK, from Middle English fitlock, fetlock, fetlock, from a Germanic source akin to Old High German vizzelach, fetlock, from Germanic *fetel-.

4. Basic form *ped-. PAWN², -ped, PEDAL, PEDATE, PEDESTRIAN, PEDI-, PEDICEL, PEDUNCLE, PEON, PES, PIONEE; MILLIPEDE, SESQUIPEDAL, TRIPEDAL, TRIVET, VAMP¹, from Latin pës (stem ped-), foot.

5. Suffixed form *ped-yo-. a. EXPEDITE, from Latin expedïre, to free from a snare (ex-, out of; see eghs ); b. IMPEDE, from Latin impedïre, “to put in fetters, hobble, shackle,” entangle, hinder (in-, in; see en ).

6. Suffixed form *ped-ikä-. IMPEACH, from Latin pedica, fetter, snare.

7. O-grade form *pod-. a. PEW, -pod, PODITE, PODIU; ANTIPODES, APODAL, APPOGGIATURA, APUS, LYCOPODIUM, MONOPODIUM, OCTOPUS, OEDIPUS, PELECYPOD, PHALAROPE, PLATYPUS, PODAGRA, PODIATRY, PODOPHYLLIN, POLYP, POLYPOD, RHIZOPUS, SYMPODIUM, XENOPUS, from Greek pous (stem pod-), foot; b. PODZOL, from Russian pod, under.

8. Suffixed form *ped-ya. TRAPEZIUM, from Greek peza, foot.

9. Suffixed form *ped-o-. a. PEDO-¹; PARALLELEPIPED, from Greek pedon, ground, soil; b. BAISA, PADA, PAISA, PICE, PIE³, PUG³, from Sanskrit padam, footstep, foot, and pät, foot; c. PAJAMA, TEAPOY, from Middle Persian päï, leg, foot; d. lengthened-grade form *pëd-o-. i PILOT, from Greek pëdon, rudder, steering oar; ii DIAPEDESIS, from Greek pëdän, to leap.

10. Suffixed form ped-ï-. CYPRIPEDIUM, from Greek pedilon, sandal.

II. Verbal root *ped-, to walk, stumble, fall.

1. FETCH¹, from Old English fetian, feccean, to bring back, from Germanic *fetën. 2a. Suffixed (comparative) form *ped-yos-. PEJORATIO; IMPAIR, from Latin pëior, worse (< “stumbling”); b. suffixed (superlative) form *ped-samo-. PESSIMISM, from Latin pessimus, worst; c. suffixed form *ped-ko-. PECCADILLO, PECCANT, PECCAV; IMPECCABLE, from Latin peccäre, to stumble, sin. a–c all from Latin *ped-.

(Pokorny 2. pêd- 790.)

pë(i)- Also pë-, pï-. To hurt. Contracted from *pe@₁(i)-; zero-grades *pi@₁-, *p@₁-.

1. Suffixed (participial) form *pï-ont- (< *pi@-ont-). FIEND, from Old English fëond, fïond, enemy, devil, from Germanic *fïjand-, hating, hostile.

2. Possibly *pë- in suffixed zero-grade form *p@-to-. PASSIBLE, PASSION, PASSIVE, PATIEN; COMPASSION, from Latin patï, to suffer.

(Pokorny pë(i)- 792.)

pei@- To be fat, swell. Derivatives include fat, pituitary, and Irish.

I. Zero-grade form *pï- (contracted from *pi@-).

1. Possibly suffixed form *pï-tu-. PIP⁵, PITUITARY, from Latin pïtuïta, moisture exuded from trees, gum, phlegm.

2. Possibly suffixed form *pï-nu-. PINE¹, PINEAL, PINNACE, PIñon, PINO; PIña cloth, from Latin pïnus, pine tree (yielding a resin).

3. Suffixed form *pï-won-. PROPIONIC acid, from Greek pïön, fat.

4. Suffixed form *pï-wer-, “fat, fertile.” a. ERSE, IRISH, from Old English ïras, the Irish, from *ïwer-iü, the prehistoric Celtic name for Ireland; b. PIERIAN Spring, from Greek Pïeriä, a region of Macedonia, from *Pïwer-iä-.

II. Extended o-grade form *poid-. FAT, from Old English faët(t), fat, from Germanic past participle *faitidaz, fattened, from derivative verb *faitjan, to fatten, from *faitaz, plump, fat.

(Pokorny pei_(@)- 793.)

peig- Also peik- (earlier *peikì-, remaining as such in satem languages). To cut, mark (by incision).

1. Alternate form *peik-. FILE², from Old English fïl, file, from Germanic *fïhala, cutting tool.

2. Nasalized zero-grade form *pi-n-g-. PAINT, PICTOR, PICTURE, PICTURESQUE, PIGMENT, PIMENTO, PINT, PINT; DEPICT, PICTOGRAPH, from Latin pingere, to embroider, tattoo, paint, picture.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *pik-ro-. PICRO-, from Greek pikros, sharp, bitter.

4. O-grade form *poik-. POIKILOTHERM, from Greek poikilos, spotted, pied, various.

(Pokorny 1. peig- 794.)

peku- Wealth, movable property. Oldest form *pekìu-, becoming *peku- in centum languages.

1 a. FELLOW, from Old Norse fë, property, cattle; b. FEE, FIE; ENFEOFF, FEOFFMENT, from Old French fie, fief, and Old English feoh, cattle, goods, money; c. FEUD², from Medieval Latin feudum, feudal estate. a–c all from Germanic *fehu-.

2. PECORINO, from Latin pecus, cattle.

3. Suffixed form *peku-n-. PECUNIAR; IMPECUNIOUS, from Latin pecünia, property, wealth.

4. Suffixed form *peku-l-. PECULATE, PECULIAR, from Latin pecülium, riches in cattle, private property. (In Pokorny 2. pekì- 797.)

pekw- To cook, ripen.

1. Assimilated form (in Italic and Celtic) *k^wek^w-. a. COOK, CUISINE, KITCHEN, QUITTO; APRICOT, BISCOTTO, BISCUIT, CHARCUTERIE, CONCOCT, DECOCT, PRECOCIOUS, RICOTTA, TERRA cotta, from Latin coquere, to cook; b. CULINARY, KILN, from Latin culïna, kitchen, deformed from coquïna.

2. PEP; PUMPKIN, from Greek pepön, ripe.

3. PEPTIC, PEPTIZ; DRUPE, EUPEPTIC, PEPSIN, PEPTONE, from Greek peptein, to cook, ripen, digest (> peptos, cooked).

4. DYSPEPSIA, from Greek -pepsiä, digestion.

5. PUKKA, from Sanskrit pakva-, ripe.

(Pokorny peku_- 798.)

pel-1 Pale. Derivatives include pallor, falcon, and poliomyelitis.

1. Suffixed variant form *pal-wo-. a. i FALLOW deer, from Old English fealu, fealo, reddish yellow; ii FAUVISM, from Frankish *falw-, reddish-yellow. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *falwaz; b. PALE², PALLID, PALLO; APPALL, from Latin pallëre, to be pale; c. PALOMINO, from Latin palumbës (influenced in form by Latin columbus, dove), ringdove, “gray-bird.”

2. Probably suffixed form *pel-ko-. FALCO; GYRFALCON, from Late Latin falcö, falcon, from Germanic *falkön-, falcon (< “gray bird”; but this is also possibly from the Late Latin).

3. Suffixed extended form *peli-wo-. a. PELOPS, from Greek pelios, dark; b. o-grade form *poli-wo-. POLIOMYELITIS, from Greek polios, gray.

4. Perhaps Greek pelargos, stork (< *pelawo-argos, “black-white bird”; argos, white; see arg- ): PELARGONIUM.

(Pokorny 6. pel- 804.)

pel-2 To fold.

1. Extended o-grade form *polt-. a. FOLD¹, from Old English fealdan, faldan, to fold; b. FALTBOAT, from Old High German faldan, to fold; c. FURBELOW, from Italian falda, fold, flap, pleat; d. i FALDSTOOL, from Medieval Latin compound faldistolium, folding chair; ii FAUTEUIL, from Old French faldestoel, faldstool. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic compound *faldistölaz, “folding stool” (*stölaz, stool; see stä- ); e. -fold, from Old English -feald, -fald, -fold, from Germanic combining form *-falthaz, *-faldaz. a–e all from Germanic *falthan, *faldan.

2. Combining form *-plo-. a. DECUPLE, MULTIPLE, OCTUPLE, QUADRUPLE, QUINTUPLE, SEPTUPLE, SEXTUPLE, TRIPLE, from Latin -plus, -fold (as in triplus, threefold); b. -ploi; TRIPLOBLASTIC, from Greek -plos, -ploos, -fold (as in haploos, haplous, single, and triploos, triple).

(Pokorny 3a. pel- 802.)

pel-3 Skin, hide.

1. Suffixed form *pel-no-. FELL³, from Old English fell, skin, hide, from Germanic *felnam.

2. FILM, from Old English filmen, membrane, from Germanic suffixed form *fel-man-ja-.

3. Suffixed form *pel-ni-. PELISSE, PELLICLE, PELT¹, PELTRY, PILLIO; PELLAGRA, SURPLICE, from Latin pellis, skin.

4. ERYSIPELAS, from Greek -pelas, skin.

5. Suffixed form *pel-to-. PELTATE, from Greek peltë, a shield (made of hide).

(Pokorny 3b. pel- 803.)

pel-4 To sell. Lengthened o-grade form *pöl-. BIBLIOPOLE, MONOPOLY, from Greek pölein, to sell.

(Pokorny 5. pel- 804.)

pel-5 To thrust, strike, drive. Derivatives include anvil, filter, pulsate, polish, and appeal.

I. Suffixed form *pel-de-.

1 a. ANVIL, from Old English anfilt(e), anfealt, anvil (“something beaten on”); b. i FELT¹, from Old English felt, felt; ii FILTER, FILTRATE, from Medieval Latin filtrum, filter, piece of felt. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *feltaz, *filtiz, compressed wool. Both a and b from Germanic *felt-, *falt-, to beat.

2. PELT², POUSSETTE, PULSATE, PULSE¹, PUS; COMPEL, DISPEL, EXPEL, IMPEL, IMPULSE, PROPEL, REPEL, from Latin pellere (past participle pulsus), to push, drive, strike. 3a. Suffixed o-grade form *pol-o-, fuller of cloth. POLISH, from Latin polïre, to make smooth, polish (< “to full cloth”); b. suffixed o-grade form *pol-o- (with different accentuation from the preceding), fulled (of cloth). INTERPOLATE, from Latin compound adjective interpolis (also interpolus), refurbished (inter-, between; see en ).

II. Extended form *pel@₂-.

1. Present stem *pelnä-. a. APPEAL, PEAL, RAPPEL, REPEAL, from Latin appelläre, “to drive to,” address, entreat, appeal, call (ad-, to; see ad- ); b. COMPELLATION, from Latin compelläre, to accost, address (com-, intensive prefix; see kom ).

2. Possible suffixed zero-grade extended adverbial form *pl,@-ti-, or locative plural *pl,@-si. PLESIOSAUR, from Greek plësios, near (< “pushed toward”), from pre-Greek *pläti or *pläsi.

(Pokorny 2a. pel- 801.)

pel@-1 To fill; with derivatives referring to abundance and multitude. Oldest form *pel@₁-; variant *ple@₁-, contracted to *plë-. Derivatives include fill, plenty, folk, accomplish, expletive, and plebeian.

I. Zero-grade form *pl,@-.

1. Suffixed form *pl,@-no-. FULL¹, from Old English full, full, from Germanic *fulnaz, *fullaz, full.

2. FILL, from Old English fyllan, to fill (from Germanic derivative verb *fulljan, to fill), and fyllu, full amount (from Germanic abstract noun *full-ïnö-, fullness).

3. PLENARY, PLENITUDE, PLENTY, PLENU; PLENIPOTENTIARY, REPLENISH, TERREPLEIN, from Latin plënus, full, from Latin stem *plëno-, replacing *pläno- (influenced by Latin verb plëre, to fill; see IV. 1. below).

4. Suffixed form *pl,@-go-. a. FOLK, from Old English folc, people; b. HERRENVOLK, VOLKSLIED, from Old High German folc, people. Both a and b from Germanic *folkam.

II. Suffixed form *p(e)l@-u-.

1. Obscure comparative form. PIù, PLURAL, PLU; NONPLUS, PLUPERFECT, SURPLUS, from Latin plüs, more (Archaic Latin plous). See also IV. 5. below.

2. O-grade form *pol(@)-u-. POLY; HOI polloi, from Greek polus, much, many.

3. Possibly from this root (but probably rather from pel-¹ ) is Latin palüs, marsh (? < “inundated”): PALUDAL.

III. Suffixed form *p(e)l@-o-. Latin compound manipulus (see man-² ).

IV. Variant form *plë-.

1. ACCOMPLISH, COMPLETE, COMPLIMENT, COMPLY, DEPLETE, EXPLETIVE, IMPLEMENT, REPLETE, SUPPLY, from Latin plëre, to fill.

2. Possibly suffixed form *plë-dhw-. PLEBE, PLEBEIAN, PLEB; PLEBISCITE, from Latin plëbs, plëbës, the people, multitude.

3. Suffixed form *plë-dhwo-. PLETHOR; PLETHYSMOGRAPH, from Greek derivative verb plëthein, to be full.

4. Suffixed adjective (positive) form *plë-ro-. PLEROCERCOID, from Greek plërës, full.

5. Suffixed (comparative) form *plë-i(s)on-. PLEO-, PLEONAS; PLEIOTAXY, PLEIOTROPISM, PLIOCENE, from Greek pleön, pleiön, more.

6. Suffixed (superlative) form *plë-isto-. PLEISTOCENE, from Greek pleistos, most.

V. Possibly Sanskrit pürah., cake (< “that which fills or satisfies”): POORI.

(Pokorny 1. pel- 798.)

pel@-2 Flat; to spread. Oldest form *pel@₂-; variant *ple@₂-, colored to *pla@₂-, contracted to *plä-. Derivatives include field, planet, plasma, plastic, and polka.

1. Suffixed form *pel(@)-tu-. FIELD, from Old English feld, open field, from Germanic *felthuz, flat land.

2. Suffixed form *pel(@)-t-es- (by-form of *pel(@)-tu-). a. FELDSPAR, from Old High German feld, field; b. VELDT, from Middle Dutch veld, velt, field. Both a and b from Germanic *feltha-, flat land.

3. Variant form *plä-. a. Suffixed form *plä-ru-. FLOOR, from Old English flör, floor, from Germanic *flöruz, floor; b. suffixed form *plä-no-. LLANO, PIANO², PLAIN, PLANARIAN, PLANE¹, PLANE², PLANE³, PLANISH, PLANO-, PLANUL; ESPLANADE, EXPLAIN, PIANOFORTE, from Latin plänus, flat, level, even, plain, clear.

4. Suffixed zero-grade form *pl,@-mä-. PALM¹, PALM², PALMARY, from Latin palma (< *palama), palm of the hand.

5. Possibly extended variant form *plan-. a. PLANE; APLANATIC, from Greek planästhai, to wander (< “to spread out”); b. perhaps Germanic *flan-. FLâneur, from French flâner, to walk the streets idly, from a source akin to Old Norse flana, to wander aimlessly.

6. Suffixed zero-grade form *pl@-dh-. -plasia, PLASMA, -plast, PLASTER, PLASTIC, PLASTID, -plast; DYSPLASIA, METAPLASM, TOXOPLASMA, from Greek plassein (< *plath-yein), to mold, “spread out.”

7. O-grade form *pol@-. a. POLYNYA, from Russian polyì, open; b. POLACK, POLKA, from Slavic polje, broad flat land, field.

(Pokorny pel@- 805.) See also extensions pläk-¹ and plat- .

pel@-3 Citadel, fortified high place. Oldest form perhaps *pel@₃- (but exact laryngeal uncertain). Zero-grade form *pl,@-. POLICE, POLICY¹, POLIS, POLITIC, POLIT; ACROPOLIS, COSMOPOLIS, COSMOPOLITE, MEGALOPOLIS, METROPOLIS, NECROPOLIS, POLICLINIC, PROPOLIS, from Greek polis, city (phonological development unclear). (In Pokorny 1. pel- 798.)

penkwe Five. Derivatives include five, Pentecost, quintessence, finger, and foist.

I. Basic form *penk^we.

1. Assimilated form *pempe. a. i FIV; FIFTY, from Old English fïf, five, with derivative fïftig, fifty (-tëne, ten; see dekm, ); ii FIN², from Old High German finf, funf, five. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *fimf; b. i FIFTEEN, from Old English fïftëne, fifteen; ii FEMTO-, from Old Norse fimmtän, fifteen. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic compound *fimftehun, fifteen (*tehun, ten; see dekm, ).

2. Assimilated form *k^wenk^we. a. CINQUAIN, CINQUE, QUINQUE; CINQUECENTO, CINQUEFOIL, QUINCUNX, from Latin quïnque, five; b. KENO, QUINATE, from Latin distributive quïnï, five each; c. QUINDECENNIAL, from Latin compound quïndecim, fifteen (decem, ten; see dekm, ); d. QUINCENTENARY, from Latin quïngentï, five hundred.

3. PENTA-, PENTA; PENSTEMON, PENTAGON, PENTAMETER, PENTATHLON, from Greek pente, five.

4. PUNCH³; PACHISI, from Sanskrit pañca, five.

II. Compound *penk^we-(d)konta, “five tens,” fifty (*-(d)konta, group of ten; see dekm, ).

1. QUINQUAGENARIAN, QUINQUAGESIMA, from Latin quïnquägintä, fifty.

2. PENTECOST, PINKSTER flower, from Greek pentëkonta, fifty.

III. Ordinal adjective *penk^w-to-.

1. FIFTH, from Old English fïfta, fifth, from Germanic *fimftön-.

2. QUINT¹, QUINTAIN, QUINTET, QUINTIL; QUINTESSENCE, QUINTILLION, QUINTUPLE, from Latin quïntus (< *quinc-tos), feminine quïnta, fifth.

IV. Suffixed form *penk^w-ro-. FINGER, from Old English finger, finger, from Germanic *fingwraz, finger (< “one of five”).

V. Suffixed reduced zero-grade form *pn,k-sti-. a. FIST, from Old English fÿst, fist; b. FOIST, from Dutch vuist, fist. Both a and b from Germanic *funhstiz.

(Pokorny penku_e 808, pn,ksti- 839.)

pent- To tread, go. Derivatives include find, pontiff, and sputnik.

1. FIND, from Old English findan, to find, from Germanic *finthan, to come upon, discover.

2. Suffixed o-grade form *pont-i-. a. PONS, PONTIFEX, PONTIFF, PONTINE, PONTOON, PUNT¹; TRANSPONTINE, from Latin pöns (stem pont-), bridge (earliest meaning, “way, passage,” preserved in the priestly title pontifex, “he who prepares the way”; -fex, maker; see dhë- ); b. SPUTNIK, from Russian sputnik, fellow traveler, sputnik, from put', path, way.

3. Zero-grade form *pn,t-. PERIPATETIC, from Greek patein, to tread, walk.

4. Suffixed zero-grade form *pn,t-@-. a. PATH, from Old English pæth, path; b. PAD²; FOOTPAD, from Middle Dutch pad, way, path. Both a and b from Germanic *patha-, way, path, probably borrowed (? via Scythian) from Iranian *path-.

(Pokorny pent- 808.)

per1 Base of prepositions and preverbs with the basic meanings of “forward,” “through,” and a wide range of extended senses such as “in front of,” “before,” “early,” “first,” “chief,” “toward,” “against,” “near,” “at,” “around.” Derivatives include far, paradise, afford, first, protein, veneer, probe, privy, pristine, and priest.

I. Basic form *per and extended form *peri.

1 a. TURNVEREIN, from Middle High German vereinen, to unite, from Old High German far-; b. VEER², from Middle Dutch vieren, to let out, slacken; c. Germanic compound *fer-getan (see ghend- ); d. FRUMP, from Middle Dutch verrompelen, to wrinkle. a–d all from Germanic *fer-, *far-, used chiefly as an intensive prefix denoting destruction, reversal, or completion.

2. Suffixed (comparative) form *per-ero-, farther away. FAR, from Old English feor(r), far, from Germanic *fer(e)ra.

3. PER, PER; PARAMOUNT, PARAMOUR, PARGET, PARTERRE, PARVENU, from Latin per, through, for, by.

4. PERI; PERISSODACTYL, from Greek peri, around, near, beyond. 5a. PALANQUIN, PUGGREE, from Sanskrit pari-, couch; b. PARADISE, from Avestan pairi-, around; c. BARD², PURDAH, from Old Persian pari, around, over; d. Old Iranian compound *pari-väraka- (see wer-⁴ ). a–d all from Indo-Iranian *pari-, around.

6. PERESTROIKA, from Old Russian pere-, around, again, from Slavic *per-.

II. Zero-grade form *pr,-.

1 a. FOR, from Old English for, before, instead of, on account of; b. FOR-, from Old English for-, prefix denoting destruction, pejoration, exclusion, or completion. Both a and b from Germanic *fur, before, in.

2. Extended form *pr,t-. FORT; AFFORD, from Old English forth, from Germanic *furth-, forward.

3. Suffixed (comparative) form *pr,-tero-. FURTHER, from Old English furthra, furthor, farther away, from Germanic *furthera-. 4a. Compound *pr,-st-i- or *por-st-i-, with o-grade form *por- (see stä- ); b. PORRECT, from Latin por-, forth, forward. Both a and b from Latin por- from *pr,-.

5. Suffixed form *pr,-söd. PARGET, from Latin porrö, forward.

III. Extended zero-grade form *pr,@-.

1. Suffixed (superlative) form *pr,@-mo-. a. FORMER², from Old English forma, first, from Germanic *fruma-, *furma-; b. FOREMOST, from Old English formest, first, from Germanic *frumista-, *furmista-; c. Latin compound prandium, “first meal,” late breakfast, lunch (probably < *präm-d-ium < *pr,@m-(e)d-yo-; second element *-(e)d-, to eat; see ed- ).

2. Suffixed (superlative) form *pr,@-isto-. FIRST, from Old English fyrst, fyrest, first, from Germanic *furista-, foremost.

3. Suffixed form *pr,@-wo-. a. PROW, from Greek pröira, forward part of a ship, from analogically suffixed form *pröw-arya; b. PROTEIN, PROTIST, PROTO-, PROTON, from Greek prötos, first, foremost, from suffixed (superlative) form *pröw-ato-. Both a and b from Greek *pröwo-, first, foremost.

4. Suffixed form *pr,@-i. ARPENT, from Latin arepennis, half-acre (second element obscure), from Gaulish ari (combining form are-), before, from Celtic *(p)ari, *are.

IV. Extended form *pr,@â.

1 a. FORE, FORE; FOREFATHER, from Old English fore, for, before; b. VORLAGE, from Old High German fora, before; c. BEFORE, from Old English beforan, before, from Germanic prefixed and suffixed form *bi-fora-na, in the front (*bi-, at, by; see ambhi ). a–c all from Germanic *fura, before.

2. PARA-¹; PALFREY, from Greek para, beside, alongside of, beyond.

3. PURANA, from Sanskrit purä, before.

V. Extended form *prô.

1 a. FRAE, FR; FROWARD, from Old Norse frä, from, from Germanic *fra, forward, away from; b. Germanic *fra-, completely, in compounds (see ed- , aik- ).

2. Suffixed form *prô-mo-. a. FRAME, FROM, from Old English fram, forward, from, from Germanic *fram, from; b. FURNISH, FURNITURE, VENEER, from Old French f(o)urnir, to supply, provide, from Germanic derivative verb *frumjan, to further, from Germanic *frum, forward; c. PRAM², from Czech prám, raft.

3. Suffixed form *prö-wo-. a. i FRAU, FRäulein, from Old High German frouwa, lady; ii FREYJA, from Old Norse freyja, lady. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *fröwö-, lady, lengthened-grade feminine of *frawan-; lord; b. FREY, from Old Norse Freyr, from Germanic *frawa-, alteration of *frawan-. lord; c. form *prö-wo-, independently created in Slavic. NAPRAPATHY, from Old Church Slavonic pravù, true.

4. PRIDE, PRO¹, PRO-¹, PRODIGALITY, PROUD, PROWES; IMPROVE, PURCHASE, from Latin prö, prô-, before, for, instead of.

5. Suffixed form *prö-no-. PRONE, from Latin prönus, leaning forward.

6. Possible suffixed form *pro-ko-. RECIPROCAL, from Latin compound reciprocus, alternating, “backward and forward” (*re-ko-, backward; see re-).

7. Suffixed adverb *pro-k^we. a. APPROACH, RAPPROCHEMENT, REPROACH, from Latin prope, near; b. suffixed form *prok^w-ink^wo-. PROPINQUITY, from Latin propinquus, near; c. suffixed (superlative) form *prok^w-isamo-. PROXIMAT; APPROXIMATE, from Latin proximus, nearest.

8. Compound *pro-bhw-o-, growing well or straightforward (*bhw-o-, to grow; see bheu@- ). PROBABLE, PROBE, PROBITY, PROOF, PROV; APPROVE, IMPROBITY, REPROVE, from Latin probus, upright, good, virtuous.

9. PRO-², from Greek pro, before, in front, forward.

10. Suffixed (comparative) form *pro-tero-. HYSTERON proteron, PROTEROZOIC, from Greek proteros, before, former.

11. PRAKRIT, from Sanskrit pra-, before, forth.

12. Celtic *ro-, intensive prefix. GALORE, from Old Irish roar, enough, from Celtic compound *ro-wero-, sufficiency (*-wero-, see wër@-o- ).

VI. Extended forms *prai-, *prei-.

1 a. PRE; PRETERIT, from Latin prae, before; b. compound *prai-ghes-to- (see ghes- ).

2. Suffixed (comparative) form *prei-yos-. PRIOR², from Latin prior, former, higher, superior.

3. Suffixed form *prei-wo-. a. PRIVATE, PRIVILEGE, PRIVITY, PRIV; DEPRIVE, from Latin prïvus, single, alone (< “standing in front,” “isolated from others”); b. PROPER, PROPERT; APPROPRIATE, EXPROPRIATE, PROPRIOCEPTION, PROPRIOCEPTOR, PROPRIUM, from Latin proprius, one's own, particular (< prö prïvö, in particular, from the ablative of prïvus, single; prö, for; see V. 4. ).

4. Extended form *preis-. a. Suffixed (superlative) form *preis-mo-. i PREMIER, PRIMAL, PRIMARY, PRIMATE, PRIME, PRIMITIVE, PRIMO, PRIMU; IMPRIMIS, PRIMAVERA¹, PRIMEVAL, PRIMIPARA, PRIMOGENITOR, PRIMOGENITURE, PRIMORDIAL, from Latin prïmus (< *prïsmus; ablative plural prïmïs), first, foremost; ii PRINCE, PRINCIPAL, PRINCIPLE, from Latin compound prïnceps, “he who takes first place,” leader, chief, emperor (-ceps, “-taker”; see kap- ); b. suffixed form *preis-tano-. PRISTINE, from Latin prïstinus, former, earlier, original.

VII. Extended form *pres- in compound *pres-g^wu-, “going before” (*g^w-u-, going; see g^wä- ). PRESBYTER, PRESTER John, PRIES; PRESBYOPIA, from Greek presbus, old, old man, elder.

VIII. Extended form *proti. PROS-, from Greek pros, against, toward, near, at.

(Pokorny 2. A. per 810.) Other possibly related forms are grouped under per-² , per-³ , per-⁴ , and per-⁵ .

per-2 To lead, pass over. A verbal root belonging to the group of per¹ . Derivatives include fjord, welfare, emporium, opportune, important, and sport.

I. Full-grade form *per-.

1. Suffixed form *per-tu-. FIRTH, FJORD, from Old Norse fjördhr, an inlet, estuary, from Germanic *ferthuz, place for crossing over, ford.

2. Suffixed form *per-onä-. PERONEAL, from Greek peronë, pin of a brooch, buckle (< “that which pierces through”).

3. Suffixed form *per-yo-. DIAPIR, from Greek peirein, to pierce.

4. Suffixed form *per-trä-. PETRO-, PETROUS, PIE; PARSLEY, PETRIFY, PETROLEUM, SALTPETER, from Greek peträ, cliff, rock (dissimilated from *perträ-), with possible earlier meaning “bedrock” (< “what one comes through to”).

5. Suffixed form *per-wr,, *per-wn,-, bedrock, “a coming through, what one comes through to,” and derived adjective *per-wn,-to-, rocky. PARVATI, from Sanskrit parvatah., mountain.

II. O-grade form *por-.

1 a. i FAR; WARFARE, WAYFARER, WAYFARING, WELFARE, from Old English faran, to go on a journey, get along; ii FIELDFARE, from Old English feldeware, possibly altered by folk etymology in Old English from an earlier *feldefare, from *fare, a goer, from faran (see (i) above); b. GABERDINE, from Old High German faran, to go, travel; c. FARTLEK, from Old Norse fara, to go, move. a–c all from Germanic *faran, to go.

2. Suffixed form *por-o-, passage, journey. PORE²; APORIA, EMPORIUM, POROMERIC, from Greek poros, journey, passage.

3. Suffixed (causative) form *por-eyo-, to cause to go, lead, conduct. a. FERRY, from Old English ferian, to transport, from Germanic *farjan, to ferry; b. GUAR, from Sanskrit pärayati, pälayati, he leads across, brings to safety.

4. Lengthened-grade form *pör-. a. FERE, from Old English (ge)fëra, “fellow-traveler,” companion (ge-, together, with; see kom ), from Germanic suffixed form *för-ja-; b. Führer, from Old High German fuoren, to lead, from Germanic suffixed (causative) form *för-jan.

5. Possibly suffixed form *por-no-, feather, wing (< “that which carries a bird in flight”). a. FERN, from Old English fearn, fern (having feathery fronds), from Germanic *farnö, feather, leaf; b. PAN², from Sanskrit parn.am, leaf, feather.

III. Zero-grade form *pr,-.

1. Suffixed form *pr,-tu-, passage. a. FORD, from Old English ford, shallow place where one may cross a river, from Germanic *furdu-; b. PORT¹; IMPORTUNE, OPPORTUNE, PASSPORT, from Latin portus, harbor (< “passage”).

2. Suffixed form *pr,-tä-. PORCH, PORT³, PORTAL, PORTCULLIS, PORTER², PORTICO, PORTIère, PORTULACA, PURSLANE, from Latin porta, gate.

3. Suffixed (denominative) form *pr,-to-. PORT⁵, PORTABLE, PORTAGE, PORTAMENTO, PORTATIVE, PORTER¹; COMPORT, DEPORT, EXPORT, IMPORT, IMPORTANT, PORTFOLIO, PURPORT, RAPPORT, REPORT, SPORT, SUPPORT, TRANSPORT, from Latin portäre, to carry.

(Pokorny 2. B. per 816.)

per-3 To try, risk (< “to lead over,” “press forward”). A verbal root belonging to the group of per¹ .

1. Lengthened grade *për-. FEAR, from Old English faër, danger, sudden calamity, from Germanic *fëraz, danger.

2. Suffixed form *perï-tlo-. PARLOUS, PERIL, from Latin perïclum, perïculum, trial, danger.

3. Suffixed form *per-yo-. EXPERIENCE, EXPERIMENT, EXPERT, from Latin experïrï, to try, learn by trying (ex-, from; see eghs ).

4. Suffixed form *per-ya. PIRAT; EMPIRIC, from Greek peira, trial, attempt.

(Pokorny 2. E. per 818.)

per-4 To strike. A verbal root possibly belonging to the group of per¹ . Extended forms *prem-, *pres-. PREGNANT², PRESS¹, PRESSURE, PRIN; APPRESSED, APRès, COMPRESS, DEPRESS, ESPRESSO, EXPRESS, IMPRESS¹, IMPRIMATUR, IMPRINT, OPPRESS, REPRESS, REPRIMAND, REPRISAL, REPRISE, SUPPRESS, from Latin premere (past participle pressus), to press.

(Pokorny 3. per- 818.)

per-5 To traffic in, sell (< “to hand over,” “distribute”). A verbal root belonging to the group of per¹ . Base of two distinct extended roots.

I. Root form *pret-.

1. INTERPRET, from Latin compound inter-pres (stem inter-pret-), go-between, negotiator (inter-, between; see en ).

2. Suffixed form *pret-yo-. PRAISE, PRECIOUS, PRIC; APPRAISE, APPRECIATE, DEPRECIATE, from Latin pretium, price.

II. Variant root form *per@₂-. Suffixed form *p(e)r-n-@-, with o-grade *por(@)-nä-. PORNOGRAPHY, from Greek pornë, prostitute, from pernanai, to sell. (In Pokorny 2. C. per 817.)

perd- To fart.

1. FART, from Old English *feortan, to fart, from Germanic *fertan, *fartön.

2. PARTRIDGE, from Greek perdix, partridge (which makes a sharp whirring sound when suddenly flushed).

(Pokorny perd- 819.) Compare pezd- .

per@-1 To produce, procure. Oldest form *per@₂-; possibly related to per@-² . See also per-⁵ II. Derivatives include parade, parry, emperor, parachute, sever, and parent.

I. Zero-grade form *pr,@- (becoming *par- in Latin). a. Suffixed form *par-ä-. PARADE, PARE, PARLAY, PARRY, PARUR; APPARATUS, APPAREL, COMPRADOR, DISPARATE, EMPEROR, IMPERATIVE, IMPERATOR, IMPERIAL, PARACHUTE, PARASOL, PREPARE, RAMPART, REPAIR¹, SEPARATE, SEVER, SEVERAL, from Latin paräre, to try to get, prepare, equip; b. suffixed form *par-yo-. -para, PARITY², -parous, PARTURIENT, POSTPARTUM, REPERTORY, VIPER, from Latin parere, parïre, to get, beget, give birth; c. parallel suffixed (participial) form *par-ent-. PARENT, from Latin parëns, parent; d. suffixed form *par-o-, producing: i JUNIPER, from Latin iüniperus, juniper, perhaps from compound *yoini-paros, “producing juniper berries” (*yoini-, juniper berry); ii compound *pau-paros (see pau-); iii Italic compound *wïwo-paros (see g^wei- ); e. suffixed form *par-ikä-. PARCAE, from Latin Parcae, the Fates (who assign one's destiny).

II. Suffixed o-grade form por(@)-sï-. HEIFER, from Old English hëahfore, calf, a compound (with obscure first element) of fearr, calf, from Germanic *farzï-.

(Pokorny 2. D. per 818.)

per@-2 To grant, allot (reciprocally, to get in return). Oldest form *per@₃-. Possibly related to per@-¹ . See also per-⁵ II. Zero-grade form *pr,@- (becoming *par- in Latin). a. Suffixed form *par-ti-. PARCEL, PARCENER, PARSE, PART, PARTICLE, PARTISAN, PARTITA, PART; BIPARTITE, COMPART, IMPART, PARTICIPATE, REPARTEE, from Latin pars (stem part-), a share, part; b. possibly suffixed form *par-tiön-. PORTION, PROPORTION, from Latin portiö, a part (first attested in the phrase prö portiöne, in proportion, according to each part, perhaps assimilated from *prö partiöne); c. perhaps Latin pär, equal: PAIR, PAR, PARITY¹, PEER²; COMPARE, IMPARITY, NONPAREIL, PARI-mutuel.

(Pokorny 2. C. per 817.)

perkwu- Oak.

1. Zero-grade form *pr,k^w-. FIR, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Icelandic fÿri, fir, from Germanic *furh-jön-.

2. Assimilated form *k^werk^wu-. CORK, QUERCETI; QUERCITRON, from Latin quercus, oak.

(Pokorny perku_u-s 822.)

pes- Penis. Suffixed form *pes-ni-. PENCIL, PENICILLIUM, PENIS, from Latin pënis (< *pesnis), penis, tail.

(Pokorny 3. pes- 824.)

pet- Also pet@- (oldest form *pet@₁-). To rush, fly. Variant *pte@₁-, contracted to *ptë-. Derivatives include feather, compete, perpetual, ptomaine, symptom, and hippopotamus.

1. Suffixed form *pet-rä-. FEATHER, from Old English fether, feather, from Germanic *fethrö, feather.

2. -petal, PETITION, PETULAN; APPETITE, COMPETE, IMPETIGO, IMPETUOUS, IMPETUS, PERPETUAL, REPEAT, from Latin petere, to go toward, seek.

3. Suffixed form *pet-nä-. PANACHE, PEN¹, PENNA, PENNATE, PENNON, PIN, PINNA, PINNACLE, PINNATE, PINNATI-, PINNUL; EMPENNAGE, from Latin penna, pinna, feather, wing.

4. Suffixed form *pet-ro- in compound *aku-petro- (see öku- ).

5. Suffixed form *pet-yo-. PROPITIOUS, from Latin propitius, favorable, gracious, originally a religious term meaning “falling or rushing forward,” hence “eager,” “well-disposed” (said of the gods; prö-, forward; see per¹ ).

6. Suffixed zero-grade form *pt-ero-. -pte; ACANTHOPTERYGIAN, AMINOPTERIN, APTERYX, ARCHAEOPTERYX, COLEOPTERAN, DIPTERAL, MECOPTERAN, ORTHOPTERAN, PERIPTERAL, PLECOPTERAN, PTERIDOLOGY, PTERYGOID, SAUROPTERYGIAN, from Greek pteron, feather, wing, and pterux, wing.

7. Suffixed zero-grade form *pt-ilo-. COLEOPTILE, from Greek ptilon, soft feathers, down, plume.

8. Suffixed variant form *ptë-no-. STEAROPTENE, from Greek ptënos, winged, flying.

9. Reduplicated form *pi-pt-. PTOMAINE, PTOSI; ASYMPTOTE, PERIPETEIA, PROPTOSIS, SYMPTOM, from Greek piptein, to fall, with verbal adjective ptötos (< *ptö-to-), falling, fallen, and nominal derivatives ptösis (< *ptö-ti-), a fall, and ptöma (< *ptö-mn,), a fall, fallen body, corpse.

10. O-grade form *pot-. HIPPOPOTAMUS, POTAMOLOGY, from Greek potamos “rushing water,” river (-amo-, Greek suffix).

11. Suffixed form *pet-tro-. TALIPOT, from Sanskrit pattram, feather, leaf.

(Pokorny 2. pet- 825.)

pet@- To spread. Oldest form *pet@₂-. Derivatives include fathom, patent, and compass.

1. Suffixed o-grade form *pot(@)-mo-. FATHOM, from Old English fæthm, fathom, from Germanic *fathmaz, “length of two arms stretched out.”

2. Suffixed (stative) variant zero-grade form *pat-ë-. PATENT, PATULOUS, from Latin patëre, to be open.

3. Probably variant zero-grade form in remade nasalized form *pat-no-. PACE¹, PANDY, PAS, PASEO, PASS, PASSé, PASSI; COMPASS, EXPAND, PASQUEFLOWER, PASSACAGLIA, PASSAGE¹, PASSAGE², PASSPORT, REPAND, SPAWN, from Latin pandere (past participle passus < *pat-to-), to spread out.

4. Suffixed form *pet-alo-. PETAL, from Greek petalon, leaf.

5. Suffixed form *pet-ano-. PAELLA, PAN¹, PATEN, PATINA¹, PATINA², from Greek patanë (? < *petanä-), platter, “thing spread out.”

6. PETASOS, from Greek petasos, broad-brimmed hat, from Greek suffixed form *peta-so-.

(Pokorny 1. pet- 824.)

peu@- To purify, cleanse. Oldest form *peu@₂-. Suffixed zero-grade form *pü-ro- (< *pu@-ro-). POUR, PURE, PURée, PURGE, PURITA; COMPURGATION, DEPURATE, EXPURGATE, PURBLIND, SPURGE, from Latin pürus, pure, and pürgäre, to purify (< *pür-igäre < *pür-agäre; *ag-, to drive; see ag- ).

(Pokorny 1. peu- 827.)

peuk- Also peug-. To prick (piquer). Oldest forms *peukì-, *peugì-, becoming *peuk-, *peug- in centum languages. Zero-grade form *pug-.

1. Suffixed form *pug-no-. PONIARD, PUGILISM, PUGIL stick, PUGNACIOU; IMPUGN, OPPUGN, REPUGN, from Latin pugil, pugilist, and pugnus, fist, with denominative pugnäre, to fight with the fist.

2. Nasalized zero-grade form *pu-n-g-. BUNG, PINK², POIGNANT, POINT, POINTILLISM, PONTIL, POUNCE¹, POUNCE³, PUNCHEON¹, PUNCTILIO, PUNCTUAL, PUNCTUATE, PUNCTURE, PUNGEN; BONTEBOK, COMPUNCTION, EXPUNGE, SPONTOON, TRAPUNTO, from Latin pungere, to prick.

3. PYGMAEAN, PYGMY, from Greek pugmë, fist.

(Pokorny peukì- 828.)

pezd- To fart.

1. Suffixed form *pezd-i-. FEIST, from Old English fïsting, a breaking wind, and Middle English fisten, to fart, from Germanic *fistiz, a fart.

2. PETARD, from Latin pëdere, to fart.

3. Perhaps Latin pëdis, louse (? < “foul-smelling insect”): PEDICULAR.

(Pokorny pezd- 829, 2. peis- 796.) Compare perd- .

p@ter- Father. Oldest form *p@₂ter-.

1. FATHE; FOREFATHER, from Old English fæder, father, from Germanic *fadar.

2. PADRE, PATER, PATERNAL, PATRI-, PATRICIAN, PATRIMONY, PATRON, Pèr; COMPADRE, EXPATRIATE, GOOMBAH, PERPETRATE, from Latin pater, father.

3. PATRI-, PATRIO; ALLOPATRIC, EUPATRID, PATRIARCH, SYMPATRIC, from Greek patër, father.

sanscrit pitr

(Pokorny p@të´(r) 829.)

pläk-1 Also plak-. To be flat. Earliest form *ple@₂k-, colored to *pla@₂k-, contracted to *pläk-. Extension of pel@-² . Derivatives include fluke¹, flaw¹, plead, placenta, and archipelago.

1. FLOE, from Old Norse flö, layer, coating, from Germanic *flöhö.

2. Variant form *pläg-. a. FLUKE¹, from Old English flöc, flatfish, from Germanic *flök-; b. FLAKE¹, from Middle English flake, flake, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Norwegian flak, flat piece, flake, from Germanic *flakaz; c. FLAKE², from Old Norse flaki, fleki, hurdle (claie), from Germanic *flak-.

3. Extended form *plakä-. FLAG⁴, FLAW¹, from Old Norse flaga, layer of stone, from Germanic *flagö.

4. Possibly suffixed (stative) form *plak-ë-, to be calm (as of the flat sea). PLACEBO, PLACID, PLEA, PLEAD, PLEASANT, PLEAS; COMPLACENT, from Latin placëre, to please, be agreeable.

5. Root noun *plak-. SUPPLICATE, SUPPLE, from Latin supplex, suppliant (whence denominative supplicäre, to beg humbly, first attested in Archaic Latin as sub vos placö, I entreat you; sub, under; see upo ).

6. Lengthened suffixed form *pläk-ä-. PLACABLE, PLACATE, from Latin pläcäre, to calm (causative of placëre).

7. Nasalized form *pla-n-k-. PLANCHET, PLANK, from Latin plancus, flat, flat-footed.

8. Variant form *plag-. a. Perhaps Latin plaga, net (? < “something extended”): PLAGIAR; b. PLAGAL, PLAGIO-, PLAYA, from Greek plagos, side.

9. Root form *plak-. PLACENTA, PLACOI; LEUKOPLAKIA, PLACODERM, from Greek plax, flat, flat land, surface, plate.

10. Possible variant form *pelag-. PELAGI; ARCHIPELAGO, from Greek pelagos, sea.

(Pokorny 1. plä-k- 831.)

pläk-2 To strike. Oldest form *ple@₂k-, colored to *pla@₂k-, contracted to *pläk-.

1. Nasalized variant forms *pla-n-k-, *pla-n-g-. a. FLING, from Middle English flingen, to fling, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse flengja, to flog, whip, from Germanic *flang-; b. PLAINT, PLANGEN; COMPLAIN, from Latin plangere, to strike (one's own breast), lament; c. suffixed form *plang-yo-. PLANKTON, from Greek plazein, to drive away, turn aside.

2. Variant form *pläg-. PLAGUE, from Latin pläga, a blow, stroke.

3. Suffixed form *pläk-yo-. PLECTRUM, -plegia, PLEXO; APOPLEXY, CATAPLEXY, PARAPLEGIA, from Greek plëssein, to beat, strike.

(Pokorny 2. pläk- 832.)

plat- To spread. Also plet@- (oldest form *plet@₂-). Extension of pel@-² . Derivatives include flatter¹, plant, plateau, platitude, and plaza.

1. Variant form *plad-. a. FLAT¹, from Old Norse flatr, flat; b. FLATTER¹, from Old French flater, to flatter. Both a and b from Germanic *flataz, flat.

2. Suffixed variant form *plad-yo-. FLAT², from Old English flet(t), floor, dwelling, from Germanic *flatjam.

3. Basic form *plat-. FLAN, from Late Latin fladö, flat cake, pancake, from Germanic *flathö(n), flat cake.

4. FLOUNDER², from Anglo-Norman floundre, flounder, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Old Swedish flundra, flatfish, flounder, from Germanic suffixed nasalized form *flu-n-th-r-jö-.

5. Nasalized form *pla-n-t-. CLAN, PLAN, PLANT, PLANTAIN¹, PLANTA; PLANTIGRADE, SUPPLANT, TRANSPLANT, from Latin planta, sole of the foot, and denominative plantäre, to drive in with the sole of the foot, plant, whence planta, a plant.

6. Suffixed zero-grade form *pl,t(@)-u-. PIAZZA, PLACE, PLAICE, PLANE⁴, PLANE tree, PLATE, PLATEAU, PLATERESQUE, PLATINA, PLATINUM, PLATITUDE, PLATY², PLATY-, PLAZA, from Greek platus, flat, broad.

(Pokorny plât- 833.)

plek- To plait. Extension of pel-² . Oldest form *plekì-, becoming *plek- in centum languages. Derivatives include flax, pliant, and perplex.

1. Suffixed o-grade form *plok-so-. FLAX, from Old English fleax, flax, from Germanic *flahsam, flax.

2. Full-grade form *plek-. MULTIPLEX, from Latin -plex, -fold (in compounds such as duplex, twofold; see dwo- ).

3. PLAIT, PLEAT, PLIANT, PLICA, PLICATE, PLIGHT¹, PLISSé, PLY¹; APPLY, COMPLICATE, COMPLICE, DEPLOY, DISPLAY, EMPLOY, EXPLICATE, EXPLICIT, EXPLOIT, IMPLICATE, IMPLICIT, REPLICATE, REPLY, SPLAY, from Latin plicäre, to fold (also in compounds used as denominatives of words in -plex, genitive -plicis).

4. Suffixed forms *plek-to- and *plek-t-to-. PLEACH, PLEXU; AMPLEXICAUL, AMPLEXUS, COMPLECT, COMPLEX, PERPLEXED, from Latin plectere (past participle plexus), to weave, plait, entwine.

5. PLECOPTERAN, PLECTOGNATH, from Greek plekein, to plait, twine, and plektos, twisted.

(Pokorny plekì- 834.)

pleu- To flow. Derivatives include pulmonary, Pluto, flow, fowl, flutter, and fluster.

I. Basic form *pleu-.

1. PLOVER, PLUVIAL, PLUVIOUS, from Latin pluere, to rain.

2. PLEUSTON, from Greek pleusis, sailing.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *plu-elos. PYELITIS, from Greek dissimilated puelos, trough, basin.

4. Suffixed form *pl(e)u-mon-, “floater,” lung(s). a. PULMONARY, from Latin pulmö (< *plumonës), lung(s); b. PNEUMO-, PNEUMONIA, PNEUMONIC, from Greek pleumön, pneumön (influenced by pneuma, breath; see pneu- ), lung.

5. Suffixed o-grade form *plou-to-. PLUT; PLUTOCRACY, PLUTOGRAPHY, from Greek ploutos, wealth, riches (< “overflowing”).

6. Lengthened o-grade form *plö(u)-. a. i FLOW, from Old English flöwan, to flow; ii perhaps Middle Dutch vluwe, fishnet: FLUE². Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *flöwan, to flow; b. suffixed form *plö-tu-. FLOOD, from Old English flöd, flood, from Germanic *flöduz, flowing water, deluge.

II. Extended form *pleuk-.

1. FLY¹, from Old English flëogan, to fly, from Germanic *fleugan, to fly.

2. FLY², from Old English flëoge, a fly, from Germanic *fleugön-, flying insect, fly.

3. Probably Germanic *fleuhan, to run away. FLEE, from Old English flëon, to flee.

4. FLEY, from Old English flÿgan, flëgan, to put to flight, from Germanic causative *flaugjan.

5. FLèche, FLETCHER, from Old French fleche, arrow, from Germanic suffixed form *fleug-ika.

6. Zero-grade form *pluk-. a. FLEDGE, from Old English *flycge, with feathers (only in unfligge, featherless), from Germanic *flugja-, feather; b. FLIGHT¹, FLIGHT², from Old English flyht, act of flying, and *flyht, act of fleeing, escape, from Germanic suffixed form *flug-ti-; c. FOWL, from Old English fugol, bird, from Germanic *fuglaz, bird, dissimilated from possible (but unlikely) suffixed form *flug-laz; d. FLügelhorn, FUGLEMAN, from Middle High German vlügel, wing, from Germanic suffixed form *flug-ilaz.

III. Extended form *pleud-.

1. FLEET¹, FLEET², from Old English flëotan, to float, swim (from Germanic *fleutan), and Old Norse fljötr, fleet, swift (from Germanic *fleutaz).

2. Zero-grade form *plud-. a. i FLOAT, from Old English flotian, to float; ii FLOTSAM, from Old French floter, to float. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic derivative *flotön, to float; b. FLOTILLA, from Old Norse floti, raft, fleet; c. FLUTTER, from Old English floterian, flotorian, to float back and forth (-erian, iterative and frequentative suffix); d. FLIT, from Old Norse flytja, to further, convey, from Germanic *flutjan, to float. a–d all from Germanic *flut-, *flot-.

3. FLUSTER, probably from a Scandinavian source akin to Icelandic flaustr, hurry, and flaustra, to bustle, from Germanic *flausta-, contracted from suffixed form *flaut-stä-, probably from *pleud-, o-grade *ploud-.

(Pokorny pleu- 835, pl(e)u-mon- 837.)

pneu- To breathe. Imitative root.

1. SNEEZE (éternuer), from Old English fnëosan, to sneeze, from Germanic *fneu-s-.

2. SNORE, SNORT, from Old English fnora, sneezing, from Germanic *fnu-s-.

3. APNEA, DIPNOAN, DYSPNEA, EUPNEA, HYPERPNEA, HYPOPNEA, POLYPNEA, TACHYPNEA, from Greek pnein, to breathe, with o-grade nouns pnoiä, -pnoia, breathing, and pnoë, breath.

4. Suffixed form *pneu-mn,. PNEUMA, PNEUMATIC, PNEUMATO-, PNEUMO-, from Greek pneuma, breath, wind, spirit.

5. Germanic variant root *fnes-. SNEER (ricaner), from Old English fnaëran, to snort, gnash one's teeth.

(Pokorny pneu- 838.)

pö(i)- To drink. Oldest form *pe@₃(i)-, colored to *po@₃(i)-.

I. Basic form *pö(i)-, reduced to *pö- (< *po@-).

1. Suffixed form *pö-to-. POTABLE, POTATION, POTATORY, from Latin pötus, drunk; a drink (whence pötäre, to drink).

2. Suffixed form *pö-ti-. POISON, POTION, from Latin pötiö, a drink.

3. Suffixed form *pö-tlo-, drinking vessel. HIBACHI, from Sanskrit pätram, cup, bowl.

4. Suffixed reduplicated zero-grade form *pi-p@-o-, whence *pi-bo-, assimilated to *bi-bo-. BEER, BEVERAGE, BIB, BIBULOU; IMBIBE, IMBRUE, from Latin bibere, to drink.

5. Suffixed zero-grade form *p@-ti-, *po-ti-. SYMPOSIUM, from Greek posis, drink, drinking.

II. Zero-grade form *pï- (< *pi@-).

1. Suffixed form *pï-ro-. PIROG, from Old Church Slavonic pirù, feast.

2. Suffixed (nasal present) form *pï-no-. PINOCYTOSIS, from Greek pïnein, to drink.

(Pokorny 2. pö(i)- 839.)

porko- Young pig. Oldest form *porkìo-, becoming *porko- in centum languages.

1 a. FARROW¹, from Old English fearh, little pig; b. AARDVARK, from Middle Dutch diminutive form varken, small pig. Both a and b from Germanic *farhaz.

2. PORCELAIN, PORCINE, POR; PORCUPINE, PORPOISE, from Latin porcus, pig.

(Pokorny porkìo-s 841.)

poti- Powerful; lord.

1. PODESTA, POSSESS, POWER, from Latin potis (> *pots > pos-), powerful, able.

2. POSSIBLE, POTEN; IMPOTENT, OMNIPOTENT, PREPOTENT, from Latin compound posse, to be able (contracted from potis, able + esse, to be; see es- ).

3. Form *pot-. a. Compound *ghos-pot- (see ghos-ti- ); b. compound *dems-pot- (see dem- ).

4. BASHAW, PADISHAH, PASHA, from Old Persian pati-, master.

(Pokorny poti-s 842.)

prek- To ask, entreat. Oldest form *prekì-, becoming *prek- in centum languages.

1. Basic form *prek-. PRAY, PRAYER¹, PRECARIOU; DEPRECATE, IMPRECATE, PRIE-dieu, from *prex, prayer (attested only in the plural precës), with Latin denominative precärï, to entreat, pray.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *pr,k-sk- becoming *pork-sk-, contracted to *posk- in suffixed form *posk-to-, contracted to *posto-. POSTULAT; EXPOSTULATE, from Latin postuläre, to ask, request.

(Pokorny 4. perkì- 821.)

preus- To freeze, burn.

1. FREEZE, from Old English frëosan, to freeze, from Germanic *freusan, to freeze.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *prus-to-. FROST, from Old English forst, frost, frost, from Germanic *frustaz, frost.

3. Suffixed form *preus-i-. PRURIENT, PRURIGO, PRURITUS, from Latin denominative prürïre, to burn, itch, yearn for, from *preusis, *preuris, act of burning.

4. Suffixed zero-grade form *prus-wïnä-. PRUINOSE, from Latin pruïna, hoarfrost.

(Pokorny preus- 846.)

prï- To love. Contracted from *pri@- (becoming *priy- before vowels). Derivatives include filibuster, friend, and Friday.

1. Suffixed form *priy-o-. a. FREE, from Old English frëo, free, and frëon, freogan, to love, set free; b. FILIBUSTER, FREEBOOTER, from Dutch vrij, free. Both a and b from Germanic *frijaz, beloved, belonging to the loved ones, not in bondage, free, and *frijön, to love.

2. Suffixed (participial) form *priy-ont-, loving. FRIEND, from Old English frïond, frëond, friend, from Germanic *frijand-, lover, friend.

3. Suffixed shortened form *pri-tu-. a. SIEGFRIED, from Old High German fridu, peace; b. AFFRAY, AFRAID, from Old French esfreer, to disturb, from Vulgar Latin *exfredäre, to break the peace, from ex-, out, away (see eghs ) + *fridäre, to make peace, from Germanic *frithu-, peace; c. Germanic *frij-, peace, safety, in compound *berg-frij- (see bhergh-² ). a–c all from Germanic *frithuz, peace.

4. Suffixed feminine form *priy-ä-, beloved. a. FRIGG, from Old Norse Frigg, goddess of the heavens, wife of Odin; b. FRIDAY, from Old English Frïgedæg, Friday, from Germanic compound *frije-dagaz, “day of Frigg” (translation of Latin Veneris diës, “Venus's day”). Both a and b from Germanic *frijjö, beloved, wife.

(Pokorny präi- 844.)

pû- To rot, decay. Probably contracted from *pu@- (becoming *puw- before vowels). Derivatives include foul, fuzzy, potpourri, and pus.

1. Suffixed form *pü-lo-. a. FOUL, from Old English fül, unclean, rotten; b. FULMAR, from Old Norse füll, foul; c. FILTH, from Old English fÿlth, foulness, from Germanic abstract noun *fülithö; d. FILE³, FOIL¹; DEFILE¹, from Old English fÿlan, to sully, from Germanic denominative *füljan, to soil, dirty. a–d all from Germanic *fülaz, rotten, filthy.

2. Extended form *pug-. FOG², from Middle English fog, fogge, aftermath grass, from a Scandinavian source probably akin to Icelandic füki, rotten sea grass, and Norwegian fogg, rank grass, from Germanic *fuk-.

3. Extended variant form *pous-. FUZZY, from Low German fussig, spongy, from Germanic *fausa-.

4. Suffixed form *pu-tri-. PUTRESCENT, PUTRI; OLLA podrida, POTPOURRI, PUTREFY, from Latin puter (stem putri-), rotten.

5. Suffixed form *puw-os-. a. PURULENT, PU; SUPPURATE, from Latin püs, pus; b. PYO-, from Greek puon, puos, pus.

6. EMPYEMA, from Greek compound empuein, to suppurate (en-, in; see en ).

(Pokorny 2. pû- 848.)

(re- Also red-. Backward. Latin combining form conceivably from Indo-European *wret-, metathetical variant of *wert-, to turn (< “turned back”), an extended form of wer-² .

1. RE-, from Latin re-, red-, backward, again.

2. Suffixed form *re(d)-tro-. RETRAL, RETRO; ARREARS, REAR guard, REARWARD², REREDOS, from Latin retrö, backward, back, behind.

3. Suffixed form *re-ko- in Latin reciprocus (see per¹ ). )

rë- To bestow (accorder), endow (doter). Contracted from *re@₁-. Suffixed form *re@-i-, goods, wealth, property. RE², REAL¹, REBU; REIFY, REPUBLIC, from Latin rës, thing.

(Pokorny 4. rei- 860.)

rëd- To scrape, scratch, gnaw. Oldest form *re@₁d-, contracted to *rëd-.

1. O-grade form *röd-. a. RODEN; CORRODE, ERODE, from Latin rödere, to gnaw; b. suffixed (instrumental) form *röd-tro-. ROSTRUM, from Latin röstrum, beak, ship's bow.

2. Possibly extended zero-grade form *r@d-d-, becoming *razd-, whence *räd- in Latin. a. RADULA, RAPE³, RAPPEE, RASCAL, RASH², RASORIAL, RATINé, RATTEEN, RAZE, RAZO; ABRADE, CORRADE, ERASE, from Latin rädere, to scrape; b. suffixed (instrumental) form *räd-tro-. RACLETTE, RASTER, from Latin rästrum, rake.

3. Zero-grade form *r@d-. RAT, from Old English ræt, rat, from Germanic *rattön-.

(Pokorny 2. rëd- 854.)

reg- To move in a straight line, with derivatives meaning “to direct in a straight line, lead, rule.” Oldest form *@₃regì-, becoming *@₃reg- in centum languages. Derivatives include right, realm, anorexia, rich, rule, interrogate, and reckless.

I. Basic form *reg-.

1. Suffixed form *reg-to-. RIGHT, from Old English riht, right, just, correct, straight, from Germanic *rehtaz.

2. REALM, RECTITUDE, RECTO, RECTOR, RECTUM, RECTUS, REGENT, REGIME, REGIMEN, REGIMENT, REGIO; ADDRESS, ADROIT, ALERT, CORRECT, DIRECT, ERECT, INCORRIGIBLE, PORRECT, RECTANGLE, RECTIFY, RECTILINEAR, RESURGE, RISORGIMENTO, SORD, SOURCE, SURGE, from Latin regere, to lead straight, guide, rule (past participle rëctus, hence adjective rëctus, right, straight).

3. ANORECTIC, ANOREXIA, from Greek oregein, to stretch out, reach out for (with o- from oldest root form *@₃regì-).

II. Lengthened-grade form *rëg-, Indo-European word for a tribal king.

1 a. BISHOPRIC, ELDRITCH, from Old English rïce, realm; b. RIKSMål, from Old Norse rïki, realm; c. REIC; REICHSMARK, from Old High German rïchi, realm; d. RICH, from Old English rïce, strong, powerful, and Old French riche, wealthy. a–d all from Germanic *rïkja-, from Celtic suffixed form *rïg-yo-.

2. REAL², REGAL, REGULUS, REIGN, RIAL¹, RIYAL, ROYA; REGICIDE, REGIUS professor, VICEREINE, VICEROY, from Latin rëx, king (royal and priestly title).

3. Suffixed form *rëg-en-. RAJ, RAJAH, RANI, RYE²; MAHARAJAH, MAHARANI, from Sanskrit räjä, räjan-, king, rajah (feminine räjñï, queen, rani), and räjati, he rules.

III. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *rëg-olä-. RAIL¹, REGLET, REGULAR, REGULATE, RULE, from Latin rëgula, straight piece of wood, rod.

IV. O-grade form *rog-.

1. RAKE¹, from Old English raca, racu, rake (implement with straight pieces of wood), from Germanic *rakö.

2. RACK¹, from Middle Dutch rec, framework, from Germanic *rak-.

3. Possibly Germanic *rankaz (with nasal infix). RANK², from Old English ranc, straight, strong, hence haughty, overbearing.

4. RECKON, from Old English gerecenian, to arrange in order, recount (ge-, collective prefix; see kom ), from Germanic *rakinaz, ready, straightforward.

5. Suffixed form *rog-ä-. ROGATION, ROGATOR; ABROGATE, ARROGATE, CORVée, DEROGATE, INTERROGATE, PREROGATIVE, PROROGUE, SUBROGATE, SUPEREROGATE, from Latin rogäre, to ask (< “stretch out the hand”).

6. Suffixed form *rog-o-. ERGO, from Latin ergö, therefore, in consequence of, perhaps contracted from a Latin phrase *ë rogö, “from the direction of” (ë < ex, out of; see eghs ), from a possible Latin noun *rogus, “extension, direction.”

V. Lengthened o-grade form *rög-.

1. RECK, from Old English rec(c)an, to pay attention to, take care (formally influenced by Old English reccan, to extend, stretch out, from Germanic *rakjan), from Germanic *rökjan.

2. RECKLESS, from Old English rëcelëas, careless (-lëas, lacking; see leu- ), from Germanic rökja-.

VI. Suffixed zero-grade form *r,g-yo-. RAITA, from Sanskrit r.jyati, he stretches out.

(Pokorny 1. regì- 854.)

rei- To flow, run.

1. Suffixed zero-grade form *ri-nu-. a. RUN, RUNNEL, from Old English rinnan, to run, and Old Norse rinna, to run (from Germanic *rinnan, to run, from *ri-nw-an), and from Old English causative ærnan, eornan, to run (from secondary Germanic causative *rannjan); b. EMBER day, from Old English ryne, a running, from secondary Germanic derivative *runiz; c. RENNET, from Old English *rynet, from secondary Germanic derivative *runita-.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *ri-l-. RILL, from Dutch ril or Low German rille, running stream, from Germanic *ril-.

3. Suffixed form *rei-wo-. RIVAL, RIVULE; DERIVE, from Latin rïvus, stream.

(Pokorny 3. er- 326.)

reidh- To ride. Derivatives include raid, road, and array.

I. Basic form *reidh-.

1. RIDE, from Old English rïdan, to ride, from Germanic *rïdan.

2. PALFREY, from Latin verëdus, post horse, from Celtic *wo-rëd- (*wo-, under; see upo ).

II. O-grade form *roidh-.

1 a. RAID, ROAD, from Old English räd, a riding, road, from Germanic *raid-; b. RADDLE¹, from Middle High German reidel, rod between upright stakes (< “wooden horse”), possibly from Germanic *raid- (see a ).

2. Probably Germanic *raid-ja-. READ; ALREADY, from Old English ræde, geræde, ready (< “prepared for a journey”).

3. Probably Germanic *raidjan. RAIMEN; ARRAY, CURRY¹, from Vulgar Latin *-rëdäre, to arrange.

(Pokorny reidh- 861.)

reig- To reach, stretch out. Oldest form *reigì-, becoming *reig- in centum languages.

1. O-grade form *roig-. REACH, from Old English raëcan, to stretch out, reach, from Germanic *raikjan.

2. Possibly suffixed (stative) zero-grade form *rig-ë-. RIGID, RIGOR, from Latin rigëre, to be stiff (? < “be stretched out”).

(Pokorny (reigì-) 862.)

rep- To snatch. Suffixed zero-grade form *rap-yo-. RAPACIOUS, RAPE¹, RAPID, RAPINE, RAPT, RAVAGE, RAVEN², RAVIN, RAVIS; EREPSIN, SUBREPTION, SURREPTITIOUS, from Latin rapere, to seize.

(Pokorny rep- 865.)

ret- To run, roll.

1. Prefixed Celtic form *to-wo-ret-, “a running up to” (to-, to; wo, under, up, up from under; see upo ). TORY, from Old Irish töir, pursuit.

2. Suffixed o-grade form *rot-ä-. RODEO, ROLL, ROTA, ROTARY, ROTATE, ROTUND, ROTUNDA, ROULETTE, ROUND¹, ROWE; BAROUCHE, CONTROL, PRUNE², ROCAMBOLE, ROTIFORM, ROTOGRAVURE, from Latin rota, wheel.

3. Suffixed (participial) form *ret-ondo-. ROTUND, ROTUNDA, ROUND¹, from Latin rotundus, round, probably from *retundus, “rolling.”

(Pokorny ret(h)- 866.)

reudh- Red, ruddy. Oldest form *@₁reudh-. Derivatives include red, robust, corroborate, ruby, and rubric.

I. O-grade form *roudh-.

1 a. RED, from Old English rëad, red; b. RORQUAL, from Old Norse raudhr, red. Both a and b from Germanic *raudaz.

2. ROWAN, from a source akin to Old Norse reynir, mountain ash, rowan (from its red berries), from Germanic *raudnia-.

3. RUFESCENT, RUFOUS, from Latin rüfus (of dialectal Italic origin), reddish.

4. RUBIGINOUS, from Latin röbus, red.

5. ROBLE, ROBORANT, ROBUS; CORROBORATE, RAMBUNCTIOUS, from Latin röbur, röbus, red oak, hardness, and röbustus, strong.

II. Zero-grade form *rudh-.

1. Suffixed form *rudh-ä-. a. RUDDLE, from Old English rudu, red color; b. RUDDOCK, from Old English rudduc, robin; c. RUDDY, from Old English rudig, ruddy. a–c all from Germanic *rudö.

2. Suffixed form *rudh-sto-. RUST, from Old English rüst (also rust?), rust, from Germanic *rust-.

3. ROUGE, RUBEOLA, RUB; RUBEFACIENT, from Latin rubeus, red.

4. RUBICUND, from Latin rubicundus, red, ruddy.

5. RUBIDIUM, from Latin rübidus, red.

6. Suffixed (stative) form *rudh-ë-. RUBESCENT, from Latin rubëre, to be red.

7. Suffixed form *rudh-ro-. a. RUBELLA, RUBRI; BILIRUBIN, from Latin ruber, red; b. RUTILANT, RUTILE, from Latin rutilus, reddish; c. ERYTHEMA, ERYTHRO-, from Greek eruthros, red (with prothetic vowel from oldest zero-grade form *@rudh-); d. ERYSIPELAS, from possibly remade Greek erusi-, red, reddening.

8. Suffixed form *rudh-to-. RISSOLE, ROUX, RUSSET, from Latin russus, red.

(Pokorny reudh- 872.)

reu@- To open; space.

1. Suffixed zero-grade form *rü-mo- (< *ru@-mo-). a. ROOM, from Old English rüm, space; b. LEBENSRAUM, from Old High German rüm, space; c. RUMMAGE, from Old Provençal run, ship's hold, space. a–c all from Germanic *rümaz; d. REAM², from Old English rÿman, to widen, open up, from Germanic denominative *rümjan.

2. Suffixed form *reu(@)-es-. RURAL, RUSTIC, from Latin rüs, “open land,” the country.

(Pokorny reu_@- 874.)

reug- To vomit, belch; smoke, cloud.

1. REEK, from Old English rëocan, to smoke, reek, and rëcan, to fumigate, from Germanic *reukan.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *rug-to-. ERUCT, from Latin rüctäre, to belch. (In Pokorny reu-b- 871.)

reup- Also reub-. To snatch. Derivatives include bereave, rob, usurp, and bankrupt.

I. Basic form *reub-. RIP¹, from Flemish rippen, to rip, from Germanic *rupjan.

II. O-grade form *roup-.

1 a. REAVE¹, from Old English rëafian, to plunder; b. BEREAVE, from Old English berëafian, to take away (be-, bi-, intensive prefix; see ambhi ); c. ROVER², from Middle Dutch and Middle Low German roven, to rob. a–c all from Germanic *(bi-)raubön. 2a. ROB, from Old French rober, to rob; b. RUBATO, from Italian rubare, to rob. Both a and b from a Romance borrowing from Germanic *raubön, to rob.

3. ROB; GARDEROBE, from Old French robe, robe (< “clothes taken as booty”), from Germanic *raubö, booty.

4. Suffixed form *roup-tro-. LOOT, from Sanskrit loptram, booty.

5. RUBLE, from Old Russian rubiti, to chop, hew, from Slavic *rubje/a-.

III. Zero-grade form *rup-.

1. USURP, from Latin üsürpäre (< *üsu-rup-; üsus, use, usage, from ütï, to use), originally “to interrupt the orderly acquisition of something by the act of using,” whence to take into use, usurp.

2. Nasalized zero-grade form *ru-m-p-. ROUT¹, RUPTUR; ABRUPT, BANKRUPT, CORRUPT, DISRUPT, ERUPT, INTERRUPT, IRRUPT, RUPICOLOUS, from Latin rumpere, to break. (In Pokorny 2. reu- 868.)

r,tko- Bear. Oldest form *@₂r,tkìo-, becoming *@r,tko- in centum languages.

1. URSINE, from Latin ursus, bear (< *orcsos).

2. ARCTIC, ARCTURUS, from Greek arktos, bear.

(Pokorny r'kìo-s 875.)

sä- To satisfy. Oldest form *se@₂-, colored to *sa@₂-, contracted to *sä-.

1. Suffixed zero-grade form *s@-to-. a. SAD, from Old English sæd, sated, weary, from Germanic *sadaz, sated; b. SATE¹, from Old English sadian, to sate, from derivative Germanic verb *sadön, to satisfy, sate.

2. Suffixed zero-grade form *s@-ti-. SATIATE, SATIET; ASSAI², ASSET, SATISFY, from Latin satis, enough, sufficient.

3. Suffixed zero-grade form *s@-tu-ro-. SATIRE, SATURATE, from Latin satur, full (of food), sated.

4. Suffixed zero-grade form *s@-d-ro-. HADRON, from Greek hadros, thick.

(Pokorny sä- 876.)

säg- To seek out. Oldest form *se@₂g-, colored to *sa@₂g-, contracted to *säg-. Derivatives include seek, ransack, and hegemony.

1. Suffixed form *säg-yo-. SEEK, from Old English saëcan, sëcan, to seek, from Germanic *sökjan.

2. Suffixed form *säg-ni-. SOKE, from Old English söcn, attack, inquiry, right of local jurisdiction, from Germanic *sökniz.

3. Zero-grade form *s@g-. a. SAKE¹, from Old English sacu, lawsuit, case, from Germanic derivative noun *sakö, “a seeking,” accusation, strife; b. i FORSAKE, from Old English forsacan, to renounce, refuse (for-, prefix denoting exclusion or rejection; see per¹ ); ii RAMSHACKLE, RANSACK, from Old Norse *saka, to seek. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *sakan, to seek, accuse, quarrel. Both a and b from Germanic *sak-.

4. Independent suffixed form *säg-yo-. PRESAGE, from Latin sägïre, to perceive, “seek to know.”

5. Zero-grade form *s@g-. SAGACIOUS, from Latin sagäx, of keen perception.

6. Suffixed form *säg-eyo-. EXEGESIS, HEGEMONY, from Greek hëgeisthai, to lead (< “to track down”).

(Pokorny säg- 876.)

sak- To sanctify.

1. Suffixed form *sak-ro-. a. SACRED, SACRISTAN, SEXTO; CONSECRATE, EXECRATE, from Latin sacer, holy, sacred, dedicated; b. compound *sakro-dhöt-, “performer of sacred rites” (*-dhöt-, doer; see dhë- ). SACERDOTAL, from Latin sacerdös, priest.

2. Nasalized form *sa-n-k-. SAINT, SANCTU; CORPOSANT, SACROSANCT, SANCTIFY, from Latin sancïre (past participle sänctus), to make sacred, consecrate.

sanscrit : lavana

(Pokorny sak- 878.)

sal- Salt.

1. Extended form *sald-. a. Suffixed form *sald-o-. SALT, from Old English sealt, salt, from Germanic *saltam; b. i SOUSE¹, from Old French sous, pickled meat; ii SILT, from Middle English cylte, fine sand, from a source probably akin to Danish and Norwegian sylt, salt marsh. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic zero-grade suffixed extended form *sult-jö; c. SALSA, SAUCE, SAUSAGE, from Latin sallere (past participle salsus < *sald-to-), to salt.

2. SAL, SALAD, SALAMI, SALARY, SALI-, SALIN; SALMAGUNDI, SALTCELLAR, SALTPETER, from Latin säl (genitive salis), salt.

3. HALO-, from Greek hals (stem hal-), salt, sea.

(Pokorny 1. sal- 878.)

säwel- The sun. Oldest form *se@₂wel-, colored to *sa@₂wel-, contracted to *säwel-, with zero-grade *s(u)wel-. The element *-el- was originally suffixal, and alternated with *-en-, yielding the variant zero-grades *s(u)wen- and (reduced) *sun-. Derivatives include Sunday, south, solar, and helium.

1. Variant forms *swen-, *sun-. a. i SUN, from Old English sunne, sun; ii SUNDEW, from Middle Dutch sonne, sun. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *sunnön-; b. SUNDAY, from Old English sunnandæg, Sunday, from Germanic compound *sunnön-dagaz, “day of the sun” (translation of Latin diës sölis); c. SOUTH, SOUTHERN, from Old English süth, south, and sütherne, southern, from Germanic derivative *sunthaz, “sun-side,” south.

2. Variant form *s(@)wöl-. SOL³, SOL, SOLAR, SOLARIU; GIRASOL, INSOLATE, PARASOL, SOLANACEOUS, SOLANINE, SOLSTICE, TURNSOLE, from Latin söl, the sun.

3. Suffixed form *säwel-yo-. HELIACAL, HELIO-, HELIU; ANTHELION, APHELION, ISOHEL, PARHELION, PERIHELION, from Greek hëlios, sun.

(Pokorny säwel- 881.)

së- To sow. Contracted from *se@₁-.

1. SOW¹, from Old English säwan, to sow, from Germanic *sëan.

2. Suffixed form *së-ti-, sowing. a. SEED, from Old English saëd, seed; b. COLZA, from Middle Dutch saet and Middle Low German sät, seed. Both a and b from Germanic *sëdiz, seed.

3. Reduplicated zero-grade form *si-s(@)-. SEASON, from Latin serere, to sow, satiö (< *s@-tiö), sowing.

4. Suffixed form *së-men-, seed. SEMé, SEMEN, SEMINAR; DISSEMINATE, INSEMINATE, SINSEMILLA, from Latin sëmen, seed. (In Pokorny 2. së(i)- 889.)

sed- To sit. Derivatives include sit, soot, séance, siege, obsess, subside, soil¹, and chair.

I. Basic form *sed-.

1. Suffixed form *sed-yo-. a. SIT, from Old English sittan, to sit; b. SITZ bath, SITZMARK, from Old High German sizzen, to sit. Both a and b from Germanic *sitjan.

2. Suffixed form *sed-lo-, seat. SETTLE, from Old English setl, seat, from Germanic *setlaz.

3. Suffixed (stative) form *sed-ë-. Séance, SEDENTARY, SEDERUNT, SEDILE, SEDIMENT, SESSILE, SESSION, SEWER², SIEG; ASSESS, ASSIDUOUS, ASSIZE, DISSIDENT, INSESSORIAL, INSIDIOUS, OBSESS, POSSESS, PRESIDE, RESIDE, SUBSIDY, SUPERSEDE, SURCEASE, from Latin sedëre, to sit.

4. Suffixed form *sed-rä-. -hedro; CATHEDRA, CATHEDRAL, CHAIR, EPHEDRINE, EXEDRA, SANHEDRIN, TETRAHEDRON, from Greek hedrä, seat, chair, face of a geometric solid.

5. Prefixed and suffixed form *pi-sed-yo-, to sit upon (*pi, on; see epi ). PIEZO; ISOPIESTIC, from Greek piezein, to press tight.

6. Basic form *sed-. a. EDAPHIC, from Greek edaphos, ground, foundation (with Greek suffix -aphos); b. UPANISHAD, from Sanskrit upanis.ad, Upanishad, from -sad, sitting; c. TANIST, from Old Irish tänaise, designated successor, from Celtic *tänihessio-, “one who is waited for,” from *to-ad-ni-sed-tio, from *to-ad-ni-sed-, to wait for (*ad-, to; see ad- ).

7. Suffixed form *sed-o-, sitting. EISTEDDFOD, from Welsh eistedd, sitting, from Celtic *eks-dï-sedo- (*eks-, out, and *dï-, out, from; see eghs and de- ).

II. O-grade form *sod-.

1. Perhaps suffixed form *sod-dhlo-. SADDLE, from Old English sadol, saddle, from Germanic *sadulaz, seat, saddle.

2. Suffixed (causative) form *sod-eyo-. a. SET¹, from Old English settan, to place; b. BESET, from Old English besettan, to set near; c. ERSATZ, from Old High German irsezzan, to replace, from sezzan, to set. a–c all from Germanic *(bi-)satjan, to cause to sit, set.

3. Suffixed form *sod-yo-. SOIL¹, from Latin solium, throne, seat.

III. Zero-grade form *-sd- (in compounds), assimilated to *-zd-.

1. Reduplicated form *si-sd- becoming *si-zd-. a. SUBSIDE, from Latin sïdere, to sit down, settle; b. SYNIZESIS, from Greek hizein, to sit down, settle down.

2. Compound suffixed form *ni-zd-o-, nest, literally “(bird's place of) sitting down” (*ni-, down). a. NEST, from Old English nest, from Germanic *nistaz; b. NICHE, NICK, NIDE, NIDU; EYAS, NIDICOLOUS, NIDIFUGOUS, NIDIFY, from Latin nïdus. nest.

3. Compound suffixed form *kuzdho-zd- (see (s)keu- ).

IV. Lengthened-grade form *sëd-.

1. SEE², from Latin sëdës, seat, residence.

2. Suffixed form *sëd-i-, settler. COSSET, possibly from Old English -saëta, -saëte, inhabitant(s), from Germanic *sëtön-, *sëti-.

3. Suffixed form *sëd-yo-. SEAT, from Old Norse sæti, seat, from Germanic *(ge)sëtjam, seat (*ge-, *ga-, collective prefix; see kom ).

4. Suffixed form *sëd-ä-. SEDATE¹, from Latin sëdäre, to settle, calm down.

5. Suffixed form *sëd-es-, seat. BANSHEE, from Old Irish síd, fairy mound.

V. Lengthened o-grade form *söd-. SOOT, from Old English söt, soot (< “that which settles”), from Germanic *sötam, from suffixed form *söd-o-.

(Pokorny sed- 884.)

segh- To hold. Oldest form *segìh-, becoming *segh- in centum languages. Derivatives include hectic, eunuch, scheme, and scholar.

1. Suffixed form *segh-es-. SIEGFRIED, from Old High German sigu, sigo, victory, from Germanic *sigiz-, victory (< “a holding or conquest in battle”).

2. HECTI; CACHEXIA, CATHEXIS, ENTELECHY, EUNUCH, OPHIUCHUS, from Greek ekhein, to hold, possess, be in a certain condition, and hexis, habit, condition.

3. Possible suffixed (abstract noun) form *segh-wër, toughness, steadfastness, with derivative *segh-wër-o-, tough, stern. SEVER; ASSEVERATE, PERSEVERE, from Latin sevërus, stern; b. STHENI; ASTHENIA, CALISTHENICS, HYPERSTHENE, HYPOSTHENIA, THROMBOSTHENIN, from Greek sthenos, physical strength, from a possible related abstract noun form *sgh-wen-es- (with zero-grade of the root).

4. O-grade form *sogh-. EPOCH, from Greek epokhë, “a holding back,” pause, cessation, position in time (epi-, on, at; see epi ).

5. Zero-grade form *sgh-. a. SCHEME, from Greek skhëma, “a holding,” form, figure; b. SCHOLAR, SCHOLASTIC, SCHOLIUM, SCHOOL¹, from Greek skholë, “a holding back,” stop, rest, leisure, employment of leisure in disputation, school.

6. Reduplicated form *si-sgh-. ISCHEMIA, from Greek iskhein, to keep back.

(Pokorny segìh- 888.)

sek- To cut. Derivatives include scythe, Saxon, skin, insect, and sickle.

1. SCYTHE, from Old English sïthe, sigthe, sickle, from Germanic *segithö, sickle.

2. Suffixed o-grade form *sok-ä-. SAW¹; HACKSAW, from Old English sagu, sage, saw, from Germanic *sagö, a cutting tool, saw.

3. Suffixed o-grade form *sok-yo-. SEDGE, from Old English secg, sedge, from Germanic *sagjaz, “sword,” plant with a cutting edge.

4. Suffixed o-grade form *sok-so-. a. ZAX, from Old English seax, knife, from Germanic *sahsam, knife, sword; b. SAXON, from Late Latin Saxö (plural Saxonës), a Saxon, from West Germanic tribal name *Saxon-, Saxon, traditionally (but doubtfully) regarded as from Germanic *sahsam (as if “warrior with knives”).

5. Extended root *skend-, to peel off, flay. SKIN, from Old Norse skinn, skin, from Germanic *skinth-.

6. Basic form *sek-. a. SECANT, -sect, SECTILE, SECTION, SECTOR, SEGMEN; DISSECT, INSECT, INTERSECT, RESECT, TRANSECT, from Latin secäre, to cut; b. SEECATCH, from Russian sech', to cut.

7. Lengthened-grade form *sëk-. SICKLE, from Latin sëcula, sickle.

8. Possible suffixed variant form *sak-so-. SASSAFRAS, SAXATIL; SAXICOLOUS, SAXIFRAGE, from Latin saxum, stone (< “broken-off piece”?).

(Pokorny 2. sêk- 895, sken-(d-) 929.) See also extended roots skei- , sker-¹ .

sekw-1 To follow. Derivatives include sequel, execute, pursue, and society.

1. SECT, SEGUE, SEGUIDILLA, SEQUACIOUS, SEQUEL, SEQUENCE, SUE, SUIT, SUITE, SUITO; CONSEQUENT, ENSUE, EXECUTE, OBSEQUIOUS, PERSECUTE, PROSECUTE, PURSUE, SUBSEQUENT, from Latin sequï, to follow.

2. SEQUESTER, SEQUESTRUM, from Latin sequester, “follower,” mediator, depositary.

3. Suffixed (participial) form *sek^w-ondo-. SECOND², SECONDO, SECUND, SECUNDINES, from Latin secundus, following, coming next, second.

4. Suffixed form *sek^w-os, following. EXTRINSIC, INTRINSIC, from Latin secus, along, alongside of.

5. Suffixed form *sek^w-no-. SCARLET, SCARLATINA, SEAL¹, SEGNO, SIGIL, SIG; ASSIGN, CONSIGN, DESIGNATE, INSIGNIA, RESIGN, from Latin signum, identifying mark, sign (< “standard that one follows”).

6. Suffixed o-grade form *sok^w-yo-. SOCIABLE, SOCIAL, SOCIETY, SOCIO; ASSOCIATE, CONSOCIATE, DISSOCIATE, from Latin socius, ally, companion (< “follower”).

(Pokorny 1. seku_- 896.)

sekw-2 To perceive, see.

1. SEE¹, from Old English sëon, to see, from Germanic *sehwan, to see.

2. SIGHT, from Old English sihth, gesiht, vision, spectacle, from Germanic abstract noun *sih-tiz.

(Pokorny 2. seku_- 897.)

sekw-3 To say, utter.

1. O-grade form *sok^w-. a. Suffixed form *sok^w-yo-. SA; GAINSAY, from Old English secgan, to say, from Germanic *sagjan; b. suffixed form *sok^w-ä-. i SAW², from Old English sagu, a saying, speech; ii SAGA, from Old Norse saga, a saying, narrative. Both (i) and (ii) from Germanic *sagö, a saying.

2. Perhaps suffixed zero-grade form *sk^w-e-tlo-, narration. a. SKALD, from Old Norse skäld, poet, “satirist”; b. SCOLD, from Middle English scolde, an abusive person, from a Scandinavian source akin to Old Norse skäld (see above). Both a and b from North Germanic *skathla. (In Pokorny 2. seku_- 897.)

sel- To jump.

1. Suffixed zero-grade form *sal-yo-. a. SALACIOUS, SALIENT, SALLY, SAUTé ASSAIL, ASSAULT, DESULTORY, DISSILIENT, EXULT, INSULT, RESILE, RESULT, SOMERSAULT, from Latin salïre, to leap; b. HALTER², from Greek hallesthai, to leap, jump.

2. Probably Latin salmö (borrowed from Gaulish), salmon (< “the leaping fish”): SALMON.

(Pokorny 4. sel- 899.)

sem-1 One; also adverbially “as one,” together with. Derivatives include simultaneous, hyphen, acolyte, and simple.

I. Full-grade form *sem-.

1 a. HENDECASYLLABIC, HENDIADYS, HENOTHEISM, HYPHEN, from Greek heis (< nominative singular masculine *hen-s < *hem-s), one; b. Greek he- in hekaton, one hundred (? dissimilated from *hem-katon; see dekm, ). Both a and b from Greek *hem-.

2. Suffixed form *sem-el-. SIMULTANEOU; ASSEMBLE, ENSEMBLE, from Latin simul, at the same time.

3. Suffixed form *sem-golo-. SINGLE, from Latin singulus, alone, single.

4. Compound *sem-per- (*per, during, for; see per¹ ). SEMPR; SEMPITERNAL, from Latin semper, always, ever (< “once for all”).

II. O-grade form *som-.

1. BONZE, SAMBAL, SAMHITA, SAMSARA, SANDHI, SANKHYA, SANNYASI, SANSKRIT, from Sanskrit sam, together.

2. Suffixed form *som-o-. a. SAME, from Old Norse samr, same, from Germanic *samaz, same; b. HOMEO-, HOMO; ANOMALOUS, from Greek homos, same; c. HOMILY, from Greek homïlos, crowd.

3. Suffixed form *som-alo-. HOMOLOGRAPHIC, from Greek homalos, like, even, level.

III. Lengthened o-grade form *söm-.

1. Suffixed form *söm-i-. SEEM, SEEMLY, from Old Norse soëmr, fitting, agreeable (< “making one,” “reconciling”), from Germanic *sömiz.

2. Suffixed lengthened o-grade form *söm-o-. SAMIZDAT, SAMOVAR, from Russian sam(o)-, self.

IV. Zero-grade form *sm,-.

1. ACOLYTE, ANACOLUTHON, from Greek compound akolouthos, accompanying (-kolouthos, from o-grade of keleuthos, way, path), from ha-, a-, together.

2. Compound form *sm,-plo- (*-plo-, -fold; see pel-² ). a. SIMPLE, from Latin simplus, simple; b. HAPLOID, from Greek haploos, haplous, single, simple.

3. Suffixed form *sm,m-o-. a. SOME, from Old English sum, one, a certain one; b. -some¹, from Old English -sum, -like. Both a and b from Germanic *sumaz.

4. Suffixed form *sm,m-alo-. SIMILA; ASSIMILATE, RESEMBLE, from Latin similis, of the same kind, like.